Final Psy 361 Holcomb SDSU

Three components of emotion

physiological, behavioral, cognitive (Subjective quality/experiential)

behavioral component of emotion

Facial expressions - Body language - Language - All of these reflect the fact that humans are a social species

(Our emotions are a big part of interpersonal interactions)

Physiological component of emotion

Change in autonomic nervous system- Heart rate (cardiovascular) - Respiration - Sweat - Pupil diameter -- we have these to prepare us to respond to our changing environment

Experiential component of emotion

Subjective quality - Emotions happen to us - We "experience them"

Cognitive - How do you interpret the behavioral, physiological and subjective experiences - Our personal explanations to ourselves - Also, how we exert control of our emotions

Theories of Emotion

Physiological theories and Cognitive theories

James-Lange Theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli - We see a shark in the ocean, it causes our heart rate to climb, then we feel afraid

Cannon-Bard Theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion - Heart pounds after we feel afraid

Beta Blockers

decrease heart rate and dilate arteries by blocking beta receptors - people report feeling less fearful

Schachter and Singer two-factor theory

theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

Schachter and Singer experiment

Cover story--vitamin (Suproxin) on vision - Injected with .5cc of adrenaline or saline

3 groups: Informed (made aware of side effects > HR), Ignorant (no side effect info), Misinformed (fabricated side effects)

Paired with angry or euphoric confederate - Measured emotional state of subjects

Ignorant and misinformed > informed

Implications Schachter and Singer experiment

When we have no causal explanation for

how we are feeling we tend to label any

arousal/physical state in terms of

available cognitions

However, when we do have good

explanations for how we are feeling then

we are less likely to use alternative

cognitive explanations

Lazarus's Cognitive Mediational Theory

Like Schacter-Singer - Emotion is our cognitive interpretation of

physiological state

Unconscious appraisal - The idea that we rapidly and without

awareness size up a situation

Patients with lesions in the ___ have been reported to have

uncontrolled ___

brain stem (medulla); crying (behavioral emotions)

Dissociation between brain areas that control ___ and the other components of ___

behavior; emotion

Hypothalamus and emotion

Regulates hormonal system, Control cardiovascular system, Respiration, Sweating

Amygdala function

Amygdala is made of several sub-nuclei - Central nucleus and Lateral nucleus

Removal of either results in tameness (lack of fear) -Stimulation results in fear response (startle and avoidance)

LeDoux Theory fear

Classical conditioning of fear response: Pair shock (UCS) with a tone (CS) and elicit freezing behavior (UCR) -> Eventually CS alone elicits freezing (CR)

-Recorded electrical activity and lesioned the amygdala

-Lateral amygdala (LA) appears to be critical in learning the CR

Damage to LA or disruption of LA activity prevents the acquisition of CR in presence of UCR

What does the Lateral Amigdala do?

Connects the auditory stimulus to fear

circuits forming in cortex - uses Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Amygdala Studies in Humans

Lesions usually result in calmness - Failure to acquire fear conditioning

Stimulation can result in aggressiveness - Terminal Man

PET studies Amygdala

Recall of highly emotional scenes from a movie > right amygdala (RA) activity

Frustrating problems > RA

Threatening words > bilateral activation

Fear Conditioning in Humans

- Might underlie anxiety disorder and PTSD

- Initially neutral environmental stimuli get repeatedly paired with stress-producing events

-Eventually these stimuli can cause stress response- Very resistant to extinction

Patient SM

-Bilateral amygdala damage in late

childhood due to Urbach-Wiethe disease

-emotion afraid was rated less intense

-did not understand fear

-Has normal happiness and disgust

response

Role of the cortex - laterality

RH appears to play a more important role

LH damage results in more depression, RH damage more euphoria

RH damage -> Problems judging facial expressions, Problems with comprehending humor, Problems judging emotional situations

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

Prefrontal Lobotomy

- Jacobson's chimp had fewer tantrums after frontal lobe removal

- Moinz (neuropsychiatrist) convinced neurosurgeons to try on humans

- Calmed patients and reduced compulsions

Problems determining and expressing emotion in voice

aprosodia

orbitofrontal cortex

a part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control

3 Components to Attention

orienting, searching, filtering

orienting reflex

• Rapid adjusting of sense organs to a

biologically important event

- Startle reflex is one (extreme) example

• Orient to anything novel

What is Orienting For?

Shift attention without overt changes

- Without head or even eye movements

• May be unique to primates

covert attention

shifting attention from one place to another while keeping the eyes stationary

searching

• Attention is involved in finding things

• Visual search task

visual search

A task in which participants are asked to determine whether a specified target is present within a field of stimuli.

feature search vs conjunction search

Feature: Fast and easy, unaffected by the number of items

Conjunction: Slow and hard, requires attention

Filtering

• Attention allows us to concentrate on one

of many potential objects

- Ignoring or "filtering out" others

• Selectivity of Attention

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many as an example of auditory selective attention

shadowing task

Two different sounds projected into different ears- asked to repeat one thing in one ear

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Posner & Snyder

• automatic processing

- modules

• strategic attention

attentional processes

processes that determine what is attended to and therefore what is learned through observation (slow, limited and flexible)

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings (fast, unlimited, "dumb")

Posner task

Covert shifts in attention. Rectangle task. Neutral trial - no cue.

Valid trial - cue points the right way.

Invalid trial - cue points the wrong way.

Invalid trial cost reaction time, proving it took longer to shift attention because of distance.

views on consciousness

medical (easy) and philosophical (hard)

medical view

Consciousness is "the state of being awake and capable of responding to the environment in an appropriate manner" It can be thought of as a continuum much like that relationship between attention and arousal

continuum of normal consciousness

Deep sleep, light sleep, REM, sleepy, relaxed, alert, attentive, vigilant, hypervigilant, distractible, hyperaroused, extreme excitement. Normal is between more than sleepy up to vigilant

Abnormal consciousness

Coma, stuporous, lethargy, confusional, clouding

Clouding of consciousness

state of consciousness that is characterized by quiet behavior, confusion, poor attention, and delayed responses.

Confusional state

a more profound deficit that includes disorientation, bewilderment, and difficulty following commands.

lethargy

severe drowsiness where patient can be aroused by moderate stimuli but then drifts back to sleep

stupor

a state of near-unconsciousness or insensibility. Only vigorous and repeated stimuli will arouse the individual. When left undisturbed, the patient will immediately lapse back to the unresponsive state

coma

state of profound unarousable unresponsiveness

Ascending Reticular Activating System

Brain stem network of neurons that projects to

the thalamus and cortex. Activity in these neurons results in wakefulness and modulates arousal

-During sleep, neurons in the ARAS have a lower firing rate - During wakefulness, they have a higher activity level

- Damage can result in coma

- Neurons from ARAS release neurotransmitters in the cortex that modulate alertness and sleep - Serotonin and Norepinephrine

Philosophical Consciousness

What does it mean to be conscious? Are all creatures conscious?

Subjectivity - Phenomenal consciousness

Self-awareness - Access consciousness

Qualia

The private and intrinsic 'what it is like' character of mental states

The way it feels to have mental states: pain, seeing red, smelling a rose. Very difficult to quantify these private and subjective states

access consciousness

The mental experiences of which we are aware and have the ability to report on without the capacity to report on how the content was built up by all the neurons, neurotransmitters, and so forth, in the nervous system.

Neurological basis of consciousness

If consciousness is a cognitive process, then there should be a brain area that is responsible for consciousness - Where in the brain does consciousness reside? Problem of "Dualism" - Homunculus (a little man in the head)

Dan Dennett

Pointed out a more subtle version of Dualism - The notion of a central observer in cognition - The idea that there is some "place" in the

brain where the it all comes together

problem of the homunculus

a criticism of cognitive-based theories that the brain alone is incapable of controlling all aspects of an action. If there is a central observer, then who is in his/her head watching the contents of

consciousness? Infinite regress... But what if there was a global system where information from other systems is processed? Working memory

global workspace model

consciousness arises as a function of which brain circuits are active

Circadian Rhythms

Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night

What controls Circadian Rhythms?

Two influences: Environmental - Sun

• Internal clock - or "endogenous oscillator" In the brain runs "free" in absence of external synchronizer

• The internal clock becomes "entrained" to external

- Special RGC cells send signals to the suprachiasmatic nucleus

• a small region of the hypothalamus directly above the optic chiasm

• Regulates melatonin release by the pineal gland, causes drowsiness

What are Circadian Rhythms for?

• Pacemaker of daily activity, Arousal levels, Metabolism, Hormonal activity, Disruptions, jet lag, shift work

jet leg

the fatigue that people experience after changing time zones during travel, 12 hour phase shift

Why do we sleep?

Evolutionary or conservation theory and Restorative theory

protection, recuperation, memory, creative thinking, growth

Neurotransmitters are replenished - Synaptic receptors are returned to optimal

sensitivity

• Memory consolidation is enhanced

• Sleep-deprived animals and humans do not do as well

on memory tasks

• Sleep deprivation before learning also impairs memory

consolidation

What is sleep?

• Part of circadian cycle

• State of altered consciousness

• Physiologically made up of a sequences of stages

• Stages are defined by electroencephalogram (EEG)

four types of EEG patterns

• Beta - 13 to 20 Hz

• Alpha - 8 to 12 Hz

• Theta - 4 to 7 Hz

• Delta - 1 to 4 Hz

• Sleep Spindles - 12-14 Hz

Sleep Stages Defined by EEG

• stage 1 go from wide awake to alpha

• stage 2 from alpha to theta

• stage 3 has both theta and some delta

• stage 4 mostly delta (slow wave sleep)

• REM sleep

REM Sleep

• Period of brain arousal - paradoxical sleep

• Lasts from 10 to 20 minutes

• Behaviorally characterized by rapid eye movements

• paralysis of the body

• Most people awakened from REM report dreaming (Dreaming can occur during other stages Most prevalent during REM)

What is Dreaming?

• Periods of cortical activity during sleep

• Associated with images, ideas and emotions

• May (or may not) be remembered after waking

• More likely to remember if awakened during REM

• Dreams are not like waking thoughts

• Frequently have a bizarre quality

Why do we dream?

1. to satisfy our own wishes

2. to file away memories

3. to develop and preserve neural pathways

4. to make sense of neural static

5. to reflect cognitive development

Freud theory of dreams

• the content of dreams reflects the dreamer's

unconscious mind

• manifestations of one's deepest desires and

anxieties

• often relating to repressed childhood memories

• Psychoanalysis seeks to interpret dreams as a way

to uncover repressed childhood desires

• Very little scientific evidence for this theory

Current Theories of dreams

• Dreams reflect (in part) some of the processes

involved in memory formation

• Without input from Prefrontal cortex (which is

quite during REM sleep)

• Which could account for why dreams have a bizarre

quality

• Remember prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive

functions

Disorders of sleep

• Dyssomnia

• Parasomnia

• Circadian rhythm

Dyssomnia

A category of sleep problems characterized by a

direct problem with the sleep process itself

• hypersomnia - Sleeping too much - Sleeping at inappropriate times

• Insomnia - problems getting to sleep - problems staying asleep

• Narcolepsy - periods of excessive daytime sleepiness - brief involuntary sleep episodes - sometimes resulting from strong emotions

Parasomnia

Category of disorders that involve unwanted events or experiences that occur during transitions from wakefulness to sleep, between stages of sleep, while waking up. The unwanted events or experiences may include abnormal movements or behaviors, abnormal emotions, perceptions or dreams. Movements/behaviors may be complex and appear purposeful to others, the patient remains asleep, usually has no memory for the events

• Two types:

• NREM (during Slow Wave Sleep): brain exits from SWS and is caught in between sleeping and wakefulness, more common in children, sleep-walking, night-terrors, confusional arousal

• REM: muscle atonia is absent, more common in older adults, individual acts out dreams

Sleep apnea - two types

• Obstructive - Caused by blockage of the upper airway - reduction in blood oxygen

• Central - Problem in the brain stem respiratory area that regulates breathing

Why is development important

to neuropsychology?

• In other words, why is it not sufficient to only consider the adult organism?

• The adult endpoint is the product of a prolonged period of developmental changes

• You can't understand adult neurocognition without understanding the changes that occur across the life span...

How many genes do humans have?

20,000-25,000

Human and mice

same amount of dna, mice 1/10 of neurons

How can so few genes specify a

brain?

A gene may work more than once, for example, there are billions of pyramidal cells in the cortex

• The same small set of genes likely code for all of them

• Development takes place over time

• Epigenetic influences, Including the epigenome

CNS development

macroscopic - whole brain development (Morphogenesis)

microscopic -Development of neurons

Gastrulation

Cells migrate to the interior of the embryo creating 3 layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm

Stages of Development

• Prenatal period:

- Zygotic stage (0-14 days)

- Embryonic stage (14 days to 9 weeks)

- Fetal stage (9 weeks to 40 weeks)

• Postnatal period:

- Neonate (birth to 1 month)

- Infant (1 month to 1 year)

- Childhood (1 year to 10 years)

- Adolescence (11 years to 18 years)

Mesoderm

skeletal muscle, the skeleton, the dermis of skin, connective tissue, the urogenital system, the heart and blood

Ectoderm

CNS, nerves, pigment cells, the epidermis, hair and mammary glands

endoderm

the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the liver, digestive and respiratory systems

organogenesis and neurulation

ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system - Starts during the 3rd week

neurulation steps

- Induction

• growth factors (e.g., BMP4) cause cells to differentiate

- Shape Change (Morphology)

• cells in certain locations change shape (e.g., apical constriction)

- Folding

CNS Development - Anterior end of Neural Tube 3 parts

Anterior end of Neural Tube 3 parts

- Forebrain

- Midbrain

- Hindbrain

Development and Placement of Neurons (Activity Independent)

1. Proliferation - cell division by mitosis

2. Migration

3. Aggregation

4. Differentiation

proliferation

• Stem Cells - Cell divisions (mitosis)

- accompanied by "oscillating movements" of the cell

- Cell goes back and forth between the ventricular zone of the neural tube and the marginal zone

• Produce new daughter cells - more stem cells - neuroblasts

Migration (radial glial cells)

glial cells that form early in development, spanning the width of the emerging cerebral hemispheres, and guide migrating neurons

Differentiation

1. Cell body

2. Cell death

3. Process formation

4. Synapse formation - activity dependent

Process Formation/Pathfinding

how axons find their way to specific targets

Neural Epigenesis/Changeux

how molecular changes in the brain can control behavior

epigenesis means the theory, now generally held, that an embryo develops progressively from an undifferentiated egg cell through a sequence of steps in which cells differentiate and organs form.

Neuropsychological Developmental Disorders four main types based on primary symptoms

- Behavioral

- Language

- Social/Emotional

- Cognitive/Intellectual

high degree of comorbidity

Behavioral Problems

- ADHD

- Adjustment disorder

- ODD

- Childhood BPD

- Substance abuse

- Age appropriate behavior

childhood conduct disorder

• Highly impulsive behavior that features:

- Aggression towards people and/or animals

- Destruction of property

- Deceitfulness

- Serious disregard for rules and social norms

- Onset before age 10

• Far more prevalent in males (4 to 12 times)

- 3 to 10% incidence

• Problems in Pre-frontal cortex/amygdala

- emotion and impulse control

ADHD

• ADHD is marked by an ongoing pattern of

inattention and/or hyperactivity that interferes

with daily functioning

- In an otherwise normally intelligent individual

• Can persist into adulthood

- But symptoms change somewhat

Core symptoms of ADHD

• Inattention: wander off task, lack of persistence, difficulty sustaining focus, general disorganization

• Hyperactivity: Constant movement, Especially when/where not appropriate, For example, child will not stay in their chair at school, Excessive fidgeting, tapping or talking

• Impulsivity: hasty actions without first thinking, Can have high potential for harm, desire for immediate rewards, inability to delay gratification

Prevalence may be as high as 10% in

children < 18 , 3.5% in adults

• More prevalent in males (12:5)

- Females are more likely to only show

attention problems