Language, Society and Power – Key Vocabulary

This set of flashcards surveys fundamental vocabulary from Francesco Pio Tardio’s synthesis of “Language, Society and Power”, covering linguistics, power, ideology, media, gender, class, age, ethnicity and global Englishes.

Language (linguistic definition)

A rule-governed system of signs that enables humans to communicate, represent reality and enact social relations.

Linguistic Competence

A speaker’s implicit knowledge of the grammar of a language, as distinguished from actual language use (performance).

Linguistic Performance

The concrete, observable use of language in real situations by individual speakers.

Communicative Competence

The ability to use a language appropriately in different social contexts, beyond grammatical accuracy.

Descriptive Grammar

An account of how language is actually used by speakers, including standard and non-standard varieties.

Prescriptive Grammar

Rules and norms dictating how a language should be used, often based on social prestige rather than usage.

Accent

Pronunciation features that indicate a speaker’s regional or social background.

Dialect / Variety

A neutral term for a regional or social form of a language, encompassing accent, vocabulary and syntax.

Neologism

A newly coined word or a new meaning for an existing word, created to describe new concepts or objects.

Roman Jakobson’s Referential Function

The communicative function focused on conveying information about context or reality.

Roman Jakobson’s Emotive Function

Language use that expresses the speaker’s attitudes or emotions.

Roman Jakobson’s Conative Function

Language aimed at influencing the addressee, e.g., commands or requests.

Roman Jakobson’s Poetic Function

Attention to the message itself, as in literary or playful language.

Roman Jakobson’s Phatic Function

Language that establishes or maintains contact, e.g., ‘Hello?’ ‘You there?’

Roman Jakobson’s Metalingual Function

Language about language, used to clarify code or meaning.

Symbolic Power

Benefits or authority gained from using a prestigious language variety rather than from formal position alone.

Institutional Power

Authority exercised through roles or institutions, often made effective via language (e.g., police commands).

Signifier

The sound pattern or written form of a linguistic sign.

Signified

The mental concept associated with a signifier.

Langue

The abstract, social system of language shared by a community.

Parole

Individual, context-bound acts of speaking or writing.

Synchronic Analysis

Study of language at a specific point in time.

Diachronic Analysis

Study of how language changes over time.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The idea that language influences (relativism) or determines (determinism) thought and perception.

Linguistic Relativity

The notion that language habits influence habitual thought patterns.

Linguistic Determinism

The stronger claim that language limits or determines possible thoughts.

Dyirbal Noun Classes

Four obligatory noun categories in the Australian language Dyirbal, reflecting an alternative world classification.

Paradigmatic Axis

The vertical set of possible word choices for a slot in an utterance.

Syntagmatic Axis

The horizontal sequence in which words are ordered in an utterance.

Transitivity (Hallidayan)

Analysis of who does what to whom in a clause, revealing representation of events and participants.

Political Correctness (Language Reform)

Efforts to avoid discriminatory or demeaning language and promote representational justice.

Ideology (linguistic)

A set of ideas and beliefs reflected, reproduced or challenged through language use.

Logos

Persuasion through logical argument or evidence.

Pathos

Persuasion through emotional appeal.

Ethos

Persuasion based on the credibility or character of the speaker.

Antithesis (Contrast)

A rhetorical device that juxtaposes opposing ideas to highlight difference.

Three-Part List

Persuasive structure presenting ideas in groups of three for memorability and impact.

Parallelism

Repetition of syntactic structures to emphasise equivalence or rhythm.

Repetition

Deliberate reuse of words or phrases to reinforce a message.

Passive Voice

Grammatical construction that foregrounds the object or result rather than the agent.

Inclusive ‘We’

Use of ‘we’ that includes speaker and audience, fostering solidarity.

Presupposition

Assumption embedded in an utterance that is treated as given information.

Metaphor

Figurative language equating one thing with another, transferring meaning across domains.

Simile

Explicit comparison stating that one thing is like another.

Euphemism

Mild or indirect word used to avoid an unpleasant or taboo concept.

Dysphemism

Derogatory or blunt term used instead of a neutral or pleasant one.

Nominalisation

Turning verbs or adjectives into nouns to make processes appear abstract or static.

Linguistic Landscape

The visible display of languages on public signs and objects in a given space.

Top-Down Signage

Official signs produced by authorities (government, institutions).

Bottom-Up Signage

Unofficial signs created by individuals or local groups.

Geosemiotics

Study of the social meaning of the spatial placement of signs.

Regulatory Discourse (Signs)

Signage that commands or prohibits behaviour (e.g., traffic signs).

Commercial Discourse (Signs)

Advertising and marketing signs aimed at consumers.

Transgressive Discourse (Signs)

Signs placed in unauthorised spaces, such as graffiti.

Child-Directed Language (CDL)

Special speech style adults use with young children, featuring simplification and high pitch.

Elderspeak

Patronising speech style addressed to older adults, resembling child-directed language.

Lexical Asymmetry

Unequal connotations of supposedly equivalent male and female terms (e.g., bachelor / spinster).

Marked Term

Word that differs from an unmarked, supposedly neutral counterpart, often signalling gender (e.g., actress).

Semantic Derogation

Process by which words, especially female-referencing, acquire negative meanings over time.

Tag Question

Short question added to a statement (‘isn’t it?’) that can express uncertainty or facilitate interaction.

Androcentric Rule

Tendency for linguistic behaviour of men to be treated as the norm and women’s as marked or inferior.

Gossip (sociolinguistic)

Interactive talk, often among women, used to negotiate social norms and relationships.

Covert Prestige

Positive value attached within a community to non-standard language forms not prestigious outside it.

Social Network (Milroy)

The pattern and strength of an individual’s social contacts affecting language variation.

Community of Practice

Group whose members engage in shared activities and develop common linguistic norms (e.g., jocks/burnouts).

Symbolic Capital

Non-material assets (education, language, prestige) that confer social advantage.

Code-Switching

Alternating between two or more languages or varieties within a conversation.

Crossing

Using a language or variety associated with a social group to which the speaker does not belong.

Kachru’s Inner Circle

Countries where English is the native language and norm-providing (e.g., UK, USA).

Kachru’s Outer Circle

Post-colonial nations where English has an institutional role and is norm-developing (e.g., India, Singapore).

Kachru’s Expanding Circle

Countries where English is a foreign language and norm-dependent (e.g., China, Germany).

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

Use of English as a common language among speakers with different L1s.

Lingua Franca Core (Jenkins)

Set of pronunciation features deemed essential for intelligibility in ELF communication.

Diglossia

Situation where two language varieties (High and Low) are used for separate social functions.

Singlish

Colloquial Singapore English, a low-variety creole-influenced English used in informal domains.

Pidgin

Simplified contact language used for limited functions between speakers without a common tongue.

Creole

Fully developed language that evolves from a pidgin and becomes a community’s native tongue.

Linguistic Imperialism

Theory that the global spread of English perpetuates political and economic dominance of English-speaking powers.

Linguistic Marketplace

Metaphor for contexts in which language varieties have different exchange values or prestige.

Second Linguistic Relativity (Blommaert)

Idea that meanings attached to language varieties vary by context, user and audience.