Biology 275: Basic Human Anatomy and Physiology I

Anatomy

The study of the structure and form of the body.

Physiology

The study of the function of the body's parts.

Levels of Organization

The hierarchical organization of living things, from the chemical level to the organismal level.

Nonpolar Molecules

Molecules composed predominantly of nonpolar bonds between atoms.

Polar Molecules

Molecules composed of relatively more polar bonds between atoms.

Amphipathic Molecules

Large molecules that have both nonpolar and polar regions.

Cohesion

The attraction between water molecules.

Surface Tension

The inward pull of water molecules at the surface.

Adhesion

The attraction of water molecules for substances other than water.

Homeostatic System

A system consisting of a receptor, control center, and effector that maintains internal balance in the body.

Enzyme

A biologically active catalyst that increases reaction rates by lowering the activation energy.

Metabolic Pathways

Pathways involving numerous enzymes that convert a substrate to a final product.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Glucose Oxidation

The net chemical reaction for the oxidation of glucose.

Glycolysis

A metabolic pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

Intermediate Stage

The stage in cellular respiration where pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA.

Citric Acid Cycle

A metabolic pathway that breaks down acetyl CoA, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Electron Transport System

A series of structures in the mitochondria that transfer electrons and produce ATP.

ATP Production

The production of ATP through glucose oxidation in cellular respiration.

Macromolecules

Large molecules formed by dehydration synthesis reactions and digested through hydrolysis.

Lipids

Fatty-like, water-insoluble molecules that include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and eicosanoids.

Carbohydrates

Molecules that include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Nucleic Acids

Polymers formed from nucleotide monomers, including DNA and RNA.

Proteins

Polymers formed from amino acid monomers, with various functions in the body.

Function of Bone

Support and protection, levers for movement, hematopoiesis, and storage of minerals and energy reserves.

Plasma Membrane

Composed of a bilayer of phospholipids with embedded cholesterol molecules and various proteins.

Action Potentials

Self-propagating electrical signals initiated in the initial segment of a neuron.

Graded Potentials

Short-lived electrical signals that occur in the dendrites and cell body of a neuron.

The Stress Response

The body's physiological response to stress, including the alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion.

Glial Cells

Supportive cells in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglial cells, and oligodendrocytes.

Types of Bone Growth

Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.

Types of Tissues

Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.

Compact Bone

Dense bone tissue that forms the outer layer of bones.

Spongy Bone

Latticework-like bone tissue that forms the interior of bones.

Bone Cells

Osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.

Types of Hormones

Circulating hormones and local hormones.

Hormone receptor complex

The complex formed when a hormone binds to an intracellular receptor, stimulating cellular activity.

Second messenger

A molecule that is produced when a water-soluble hormone binds to a plasma membrane receptor, activating a G protein and initiating a signaling cascade.

Up-regulation

An increase in the number of receptors on a target cell, allowing for a greater response to a hormone.

Down-regulation

A decrease in the number of receptors on a target cell, reducing the cell's responsiveness to a hormone.

Synergistic effect

When multiple hormones interact with a target cell to produce a greater combined effect than the sum of their individual effects.

Permissive effect

When one hormone "gives permission" for another hormone to exert its full effect on a target cell.

Antagonistic effect

When two hormones have opposing effects on a target cell.

Sodium-potassium pumps

Membrane proteins that maintain specific concentration gradients of sodium and potassium ions by actively transporting them against their concentration gradients.

Endocrine system

The system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions.

Nervous system

The system of nerves and neurons that transmit electrical signals to control and coordinate bodily functions.

Negative feedback

A regulatory mechanism in which an increase or decrease in a stimulus triggers a response that opposes the initial change, helping to maintain homeostasis.

Positive feedback

A regulatory mechanism in which a stimulus triggers a response that amplifies or reinforces the initial change, leading to a climactic event.

Diffusion

The passive movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Osmosis

The passive movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

Active transport

The movement of substances across a membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring the expenditure of cellular energy.

Fibrous joints

Joints connected by dense regular connective tissue and lack a joint cavity.

Cartilaginous joints

Joints connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage and lack a joint cavity.

Synovial joints

Freely movable joints that have a joint cavity and are surrounded by a synovial membrane.

Resting membrane potential

The electrical charge difference across the plasma membrane of a cell when it is at rest.

Skeletal muscle contraction

The process by which skeletal muscle fibers generate tension and shorten in length.

Neuromuscular junction

The site where a motor neuron meets a skeletal muscle fiber, allowing for the transmission of nerve signals to initiate muscle contraction.

Smooth muscle contraction

The process by which smooth muscle fibers generate tension and shorten in length.