Chapter 14: European Exploration and Conquest

In broad terms, what was traded among the Indian Ocean and with what nations?

Gold, people, and ideas (like religious ones) were traded throughout the Indian Ocean with Southeast Asia, Middle East, Chilna, India, Africa. 

How did Indian Ocean trade increase steadily from the 7th through 14th centuries?

It was through political unification, economic growth in China, and the spread of Islam.

During the early 14th century, how did Merchants congregate?

They settled temporarily in cities (port ones) that strung around the Indian Ocean. Most of these cities did not have an official government and relied on ethnic, religious, and family ties to limit violence.

Describe the contributions of Marco Polo in the 13th-14th century…

He was a traveler and explorer from Venice who traveled throughout Asia from 1271 to 1295. He visited China and encountered Genghis Khan and then described some of the cities, like Hangzhou as “the finest and noblest in the world,” making A TON of European folk want to follow in his footsteps.

who traveled extensively in Asia, noting the wealth and culture of the regions he visited, particularly China. His writings inspired further exploration and trade.

Describe China during the 15th century (early 15th century), specifically under the M___ dynasty (fill in the blank first)…

ming; After the Mongols fell to this dynasty, China started to expand its population, economy, and political power. It’s huge cities wanted luxury products from the Indian Ocean world, so Admiral Zheng went on several expeditions from 1405 to 1422 all across the Indian Ocean with hundreds of ships and thousands of men to gather resources. 

He brought back resources like giraffes, zebras, other exotic animals. HOWEVER, China wasn’t really interested in what he could bring, rather, they wanted to expand their diplomatic powers and to seek-out alliances. 

Describe India in its connection with the Indian Ocean…

In the days before Columbus, Muslim Arab and Persian merchants who circumnavigated India to trade with South China ended up establishing trading posts on the coasts of India.

Some of these cities, like Calicus and Quilon became huge commercial centers since many of the world’s pepper, cotton, and silk textiles were grown in India.

Describe the trading states of Africa (before Columbus)…

In 1450, they had a few large empires with hundreds of smaller states. Cairo, for example, was a major hub for goods that moved between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean.

On the east-coast, Swahili-speaking city-states had engaged in the Indian Ocean trade where they exchanged ivory, spices, cowrie shells, other goods.

In terms of the gold, a lot of it came from the western part of the Sudan region. People would transport it across the Sahara by Arab and African traders on camels, where it was then sold in Northern Africa.

What two city states controlled the European luxurt trade with the East in the early 14th century?

What did Venice do?

Venice and Genoa.

In 1304, Venice made an alliance with Mamluk Egypt and opened operations with Cairo, essentially connecting Venice with the Asian Trading route and Indian Ocean trade. Because of this, they were able to purchase goods like spikes, silks, and carpets. 

Genoa was a big competitor with Venice. Theyu dominated the Black Sea route to Asia, allowing them to go to as far as Persia/Far East. In 1291 for example, they sponsored an expedition into the Atlantic to find a faster route to India; however, their ships were lost. THEN, Genoa switched to a financial empire, funding trade expeditions and establishing banking systems to support merchant activities.

What was a major element of Italian trade?

Slavery.

Merchants would purchase slaves in the Balkans and sold to Egypt for the sultan’s army OR sent to work as agricultural laborers in the Mediterranean.

Young girls would be sold to Mediterranean ports where they would work as servants and concubines.

The Genoese would even find new supplies of slaves in the West, where they took indigenous people of the Canary islands, Muslim prisoners, Jewish refugees from Spain.

What was the economic cause of European Expansion?

The Portuguese and Spanish were the first to undertake these exploration voyages and find a direct route to Asia to trade with spices and goods.

The reason they were able to travel on these voyages was because of advancements in navigation technology, such as the astrolabe, and the desire to find alternative trade routes that bypassed Muslim intermediaries.

How were spices critical in European Expansion?

After they were introduced by the Crusaders in the 12th cenruy, pepper, ginger, mace, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc, all added flavor to people’s diet. They were also used in medicinal practices and could be used for religious rituals, improving daily life.

Finally, because they were rare to find, many European elites coud use them to demonstrate their social standing.

How was religious fervor and the crusading spirit another cause of exploration?

The Christian Kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula originally sought to expand their control over Muslim states, a process known as the reconquista. It was then Portugal’s expansion across the Mediterranean to North Africa and Colombus’s voyage that represented these extensions of the reconquista.

When Colombus reached the new world, he would conquer indigenous empires to bring new Christanity practices, known as conquistadors. These conquistadors in the Americas were then promised land, titles, and power over these conquered people, so it incentivized them to continue converting people.

What was it that actually ALLOWED people to travel and expand?

There was a lot of compeition among European monarchies for prestige and profit, so they began sponsoring these expeditions to increase wealth.

Additionally, Renaissance ideas helped to expand this. There was still a genuine passion for expanding human knowedlge and these new European discoveries helped to shape our undersatnding of the physical universe. People interested in Renaissance ideas would make journals and jot down the fantasic places and unknowing peoples of their expeditions, making people want to explore more.

One of the most popular books at this time was The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, which described of the author’s travels in the Middle East, India, and China.

Describe the ships that the Poruguese used for expansion, why didn’t it work? What did they use instead?

Traditionally, the Portuguese used seagoing vessels that had a single mast or a narrow, open galley that used oars. Although it worked for short distances, it didn’t work for long ones.

Instead, they created the caravel which was a two or three masted sailing ship. It’s multiple sails and sternpost rudder therefore made it easy to operate and modify to add cannons for protection and warfare. They would even use these cannons to capture port cities in their expansion into Asia.

What was Ptolemy’s Geography? How did it play into expansion?

Ptolemy’s Geography was a 2nd cenruty map that introduced the concepts of longitude and latitude. It was reintroduced to Europeans in 1410 by Arab scholars to allow cartographers to create more accurate maps. 

What other technological advancements (besides Ptolemy’s Geography & Caravels by Portugese) happened during expansion?

The compass, which originated in China, helped people after being brought to the West in the late Middle Ages. Using this, people could determine their direction and estimate their speed of travel to estimate how long an expedition would take someone.

In the 1480s, the astrolabe was created by a group of astronomers after being commissioned by King John II of Portugal. This device allowed people to determine their latitude at sea by determining the altitude of the sun and using tables of the device.

How was life at sea despite all of the technological improvements?

It was incredible dangerous because people would be overcrowded, hungry, and face conflicts at sea with other nations. Additionally, the expeditions would take months, and 100-120 poorly paid crew members would work in a limited space (only 1600-2000 square feet).

Who was a leading figure at the start of the Portugese in terms of their conquest?

King Henry the Navigator; He was incredibly optimistic for voyages of discovery. He participated in Portugal’s conquest of Ceuta (Arab city in northern Morocco in 1415). Additionally, he was able to claim islands in the Atlanntic off the northwest coast of Africa.

In 1443, they founded their first African commercial settlement at Arguin in North Africa.

And, even after his death in 1460, the sugar plantations established on the islands in Africa remained, allowing the frist enslaved Africans in Portugal to arrive and new access to African gold.

Despite King Henry the Navigator thriving for expansion in Portugal, who else helped them or allowed it?

It was the Catholic Church that authorized and legitimized Portugal’s exploration. Pope Nicholas V issued a bull that reiterated the rights of the Portugese to conquer and enslave non-Christians and to recognize the territory that Portugal captured in West Africa.

After establishing trading posts on the gold-rich Guinea cost, what did the Portugese do next in terms of expansion?

They then went further south down the west coast of Africa. In 1487, Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa and opened up the sea route to India thanks to Vasco de Gama who sailed to India in 1498 after reaching the port of Calicut.

Who was it that opened up a route to the Indian Ocean Trading route? What port did he reach?

Bartholomeu Dias came incredibly close to circumnavigate Africa, but had to turn around because of weather conditions. However, Vasco de Gama was able to do it and reached the port of Calicut, India. From there, he brought back tons of spices to Lisbon and established a permanent route that would be used every March or April to India.

After de Gama’s contributions, what city in Europe became the major entrance port for Asian goods?

Lisbon.

Why was it difficult for Europe to establish a route to India, despite de Gama reaching it?

It was because of the Muslim-controlled port city-states that had long controlled the routes. From 1500-15, the Portuguese used bombardment and diplomatic treaties to establish their own presence in India, like setting up forts at Goa, Malacca, Clicut, and Hormuz.

Describe Christopher Colombus before his expedition…

He was a ntive of Genoa and was incredibly experienced in the navigation world, using portolans (written descriptions of the courses along which ships sailed) and an astrolabe. He was also incredibly religious and was a big supporter of the Spanish conquest of Granana. He strongly believed that Christianity should be carried to all places of the Earth. 

Describe Colombus’s goals to sail westward…

He believed that there was a faster trading route to reach Asia, speciflcally the spice islands. Originally, he went to Portugal since they were the leading role in Atlantic exploration and his personal connection. However, they refused, so he turned to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1486, finally winning them over 6 years later.

Colombus was influenced by the success of the reconquista and was eager to earn profits from trade, so the Spanish crown stated that he would own 10% of the material rewards from the journey.

What happened when Colombus reached his destination on _____, 1492?

October 12th.

He discovered the Bahamas and named it San Salvador, thinking he was really near Hangzhou. He described the native people as handsome, peaceful, and primitive in his letter back to Ferdinand and Isabella. He also believed that these Indians could be very easily converted to Christianity.

He found that the people, actually called the Taino people of Hispaniola, had a few gold ornaments, suggesting that gold was available here. After this, and realing that he didn’t find many really complex cities, he headed back to Spain to report his discovery.

What happened when Colombus returned to the Americas in 1493?

He brought settlers for the new Spanish territories, along with agricultural seed and livestock. He also forcibly took control of the island of Hispaniola and enslaved the people. 

Despite this, he was horrible at governing, and a revolt soon broke out against him and his brother. A royal expedition sent to investigate his leadership returned both of them back to Spain in chains, and a royal governor took control. 

Who was the first to percieve whether Colombus actually discovered what he was looking for?

It was Amerigo Vespucci who wrote about his discoveries on the coast of modern-day Venezuela, stating that those new regions Colombus discovered may rightly be called a New World. He wrote this in his book called Mundus Novus.

When Colombus came back after his first voyage, what did the Spanish Crown do to make sure that these territories stay away from Portugal control?

They began working with the Spanish-born Pope Alexander VI who drew an imaginary line down the Atlantic which gave Spain possession of all lands discovered to the west and Portugal everything to the East (called the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494).

The Bahamas that Colombus discovered were originally too insignificant compared to the enormous riches that the Portuguese had, so what did Spain do?

They renewed the search for a western passage to Asia under the ruling of Charles I (AKA Charles V of Holy Roman Empire) in 1519. He ended up sending Ferdinand Magellan, who sailed southwest across the Atlantic to Brazil and then found the Pacific Ocean after traveling through a very dangerous strait.

Eventually, after 3 years, he and his crew became the first to circumnavigate the globe, even though he ended up dying toward the Malay Archipelago (Indonesia) and 18 out of his 270 men returned back to Spain.

However, while the profit of this expedition wasn’t very vast, it made everyone realize that there was serious vastness to the Pacific and the world was much longer than predicted by the Ptolemy map. As a result, Spanish rulers abandoned this route and instead, looked at New World territories.

Describe EARLY English exploration into the New World…

In 1497, John Cabot, a Venetian merchant living in London, obtained support from King Henry VII to find a northwest passage to the Indies. He ended up landing on Newfoundland (Canada) and took two additional voyages to explore the northeast coast of Canada. However, since they didn’t reveal the passage to the Indies, the King made no attempt to establish settlements (or Cabot) on these areas.

HOWEVER, after hearing the news of the wealth that Mexico and Peru had, it inspired the English to renew their efforts and between 1576-78, Martin Frobisher made 3 voyages around the Canadian bay. Despite bringing back a quantity of ore, it was proved to be worthless.

How did the French go about early exploration?

They originally sought after many other nations to find a westward way to reach the Indies and between 1534-41, Jacques Cartier made several voyages and explored the St. Lawrence River of Canada. However, his efforts were halted by this river because of its rapids. He believed that China layed right across it, but he was wrong.

After this, instead of looking for the Indies, the French looked in Canada for profits where trade in beavers and other furs proved somewhat successful. They also fished in the Atlantic waters near Newfoundland; however, there was a lot of conflict with them and the Portuguese and Spanish, since fish was incredibly popular in Europe because of Lent.

How did the discovery of the Aztec empire initially begin?

The Spanish governor in Cuba believed that there was a wealthy mainland civilization, so he sponsored expeditions to the Gulf of Mexico. One such expedition included Hernan Cortes, who landed on the Mexican coast in April, 1519 with Taino and African slaves.

After he set up camp there in a town he called Vera Cruz, he began to recieve visits from delegations from the Aztec empire, who gave him gifts and news of their great emperor. 

On Vera Cruz, he also sought to become independent of Cuba and the Spanish Governor, so he named his followers town councilors and himself as the military commander.

What was the Aztec Empire?

This empire was formed in the early 15th century via an alliance of the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan and city-states of the Valley of Mexico. Throughout a few decades, the empire expanded rapidly through conquest, and the emperor, Moctezuma II, ruled an empire of several million inhabitants from the capitol (Tenochtitlan).

This empire was INCREDIBLY advanced with mathematics, astronomy, engineering, poetry, and written historical records. The civilization was heiarchical and included a nobility, priests, and commoners.

Obviously, Hernan Cortes was incredibly weak compared to the Aztec Empire, so how did he gather the strength to overthrow it?

He was able to obtain local assistance from them, given their brutal nature of ignorance. After a few weeks of his arrival on Vera Cruz, he acquired translators who provided vital information about the weaknesses of the Aztec’s. 

In September 1519, he was able to form an alliance with Tlaxcala, an independent city-state of the Aztec’s, among other native kingdoms. After making this alliance, the Spanish-Tlaxcala forces took control of a smaller Aztec city-state called Cholula, killing many thousands. 

Who was Dona Marina?

She was 1 of 20 weomen given to the Spanish as a slave. She was fluent in Nahuatl and Yucatec Maya, so she was able to act as a translator and had a close relationship with Cortes, even having one of his children in 1522. Specifically, Cortes wrote about her in his letters to Charles V in 1522.

How did the attack on Tenochtitlan play out? Why didn’t Moctezuma fight back at first?

Despite that Cortes was aligned with many native kingdoms, Moctezuma did not attack them and instad welcomed Cortes into Tenochtitlan. And, though impossible to verify, it was told that Moctezuma agreed to become a vassal of the Spanish king.

After spending several months in the city, the Spanish seized Moctezuma and eventually killed him. As a result, the population rose up against the Spanish, who fled with heavy losses.

THEN, in 1521 (May), the Spanish-Tlaxcalan alliance came back into the capitol a second time with an army of 1 thousand spanish and 75 thousand native warriors. As a result, the Aztec empire fell in summer 1521 and Cortes began the conquest of Mexico, converting all of the inhabitants at Tenochtitlan.

What was the Inca Empire?

It was an empire located in Peru with the capitol city of Cuzco. This empire was isolated from North American indigenous people and knew nothing of the Aztec’s. The reason the Inca got super powerful was because of the emperor, who led a very successful campaign of conquest to the frontier of Ecuador and Colombia. They had 16 million people and 350,000 square miles.

The empire was divided into four regions which contained 80 provinces and 160 districts. In terms of writing, they used colored and knotted cords called Khipus for bookkeeping.

How did the conquest of the Inca Empire play out?

Before the Spanish, the Inca empire was actually devistated severly by a civil war over successfion and a ton of disease (likely smallpox). As a result, there was no long-standing leader. 

The Spanish led Francisco Pizarro, a conquistador, into Peru in 1532, which was on the very day that the Inca leader, Atahualpa, won control of the empire after 5 years of fighting a civil war. Then, as Pizzaro advanced across the Andes toward the capitol Cuzco, Atahualpa was also heading there.

Atahualpa was aware of the Spanish, so he enacted an army of 40000 stationed nearby to eventually capture the Spanish after inviting them over for friendly relations (which was really a trap). Instead of this though, the Spanish ambushed and captured him, collected a ton of gold from ransom, and then killed in in 1533. 

After his death, they marched into Cuzco, capturing it in 1533. Though the hostilities didn’t end until 1570s, the Spanish took control of the Inca empire LARGELY IN PART OF DISEASE!!!!!!

How did England, France, and the Netherlands conduct the initial phase of conquest?

They relied on charters that would contain government monopolies. If they found a place to settle and establish trade, then those corporate bodies were given exclusive powers to conduct trade, wage wars, etc. It was as if they were they’re own little nation. 

For example, the colony of Virginia, founded at Jamestown in 1607 struggled to grow sufficient food and faced hostility from the Powhatan Confederacy and its army. Eventually though, Jamestown was able to thrive by producing tobacco for a growing European market, something that was only possible from those exclusive powers. 

How did the colony of Jamestown attract more people?

They used the idea of indentured servitude, where people would obtain free passage to the colony in exchange for several years of work and the promise of a greater opportunity for economic and social advancement than in England.

Eventually, the popularity of these ideas in England attracted English colonists, like in the Caribbean to settle in California, where they could get more land and use tobacco.

Talk about the settlements on New England…

Many of these settlements became controlled by the English for several different reasons. For example, radical Protestants sought to escape the Anglican repression in England and sought to begin new lives in the New World. These individuals arrived in a small outpost of Plymouth Colony in 1620 on the Mayflower. Slavery was minor here.

Talk about the French settlments…

The French largely remained in Canada and many US states. Samuel de Champlain founded the first permanent French seettlement at Quebec in 1608 and Ville-Marie was foundedin 1642 (called Montreal).

They ended up forging relationships with the Huron Confederacy, a league of four indigenous nations that dominated the region of Lake Erie to gain more access to hunting grounds, like beavers and other animals.

How was Spanish exploration and other nations’ exploration in the Caribbean?

Originally, Spain took hold over most of the Caribbean Islands, however, after the first few decades of the 17th century, English and French naval captains took control over many islands. 

The English for example, took control of Bermuda, Barbados. The French took control of Cayenne, St. Christophe (and others). 

The Portuguese brough sugar plantations to Brazil instead of the Caribbean. Either way though, sugar and slaves were soon to come to the West Indies. 

Read 409, 410, 411

Throughout the Middle Ages, slavery was deeply entrenched in the Mediterranean. How did the Portuguese gain slaves here?

They began to establish connections with nations in Africa, like Kongo. In Africa, they found that it was easier to trade with local leaders, who were used to trading captives. So, in 1483, an alliance was made with Kongo and the Portuguese intermarried, creating a permanent Afro-Portuguese community that exported slaves.

Sugar was obviously a HOT item during the conquest; however, what were some challenges of it? How did people overcome this?

Before conquest, sugar production was taken in ancient times to India, where farmers would preserve the cane juice as granules that could stored and shipped. From there, it would’ve gone to China and the Mediterranean, where islands with suitable climates, like Crete and Sicily, could grow the sugarcane.

Eventually, the demand for sugar increased significantly, and the islands in the Caribbean had a suitable climate for it. However, sugar was a VERY difficult process to produce for profit because it had to be harvested and processed rapidly to avoid spoiling. Additionally, since this demand was high, these nations needed TONS of workers to actually produce the sugar, so many slaves were used (at first it was indigenous peoples).

When did the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade begin? Explain it…

It began in 1518 when Spanish King Charles I authorized traders to bring enslaved Africans to the Americas. Around 20% (before 1700) died just on the transport to the Americas mainly from dysentery induced by poor-quality food, water, and sanitary conditions.

It was actually the Portuguese that brought the first slaves to Brazil around 1550 and by 1600, four thousand were being imported annually.

For the Dutch, their West India Company transported thousands of Africans to Brazil and the Caribbean, mostly to work on sugar plantations.

Describe the start of Spanish Silver and how it came to be…

In 1545, the Spanish discovered a very profitable silver mine near the Inca Empire that they conquered. This mine, called Potosi, yielded 60% of all the silver mined in the world.

As a result, mining became very important and millions of indigenous laborers suffered brutal conditions, including death from these silver mines. Since there was such a demand for the excavation of this silver, it only STRENGTHENED the African Slave Trade.

How did the Spanish economy react to the shitload of silver produced from the Potosi mine?

It led to significant inflation rates because of this influx of money. People in the Middle class significantly benefitted, since their debts were going away year by year, but the peasants and poor people suffered worst of all, since the prices of good rose dramatically.

Although the massive influx of silver hurt the economy of Spain, what else contributed to it?

It was the king himself. King Philip II would often write off the state debt and would thereby undermine the confidence in the government and the damaging economy. AKA, people had essentially no idea that the people of Spain were struggling so much.

What were the three commercial empires?

Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese

Describe the Portuguese in terms of their global economy…

They were the first worldwide traders who controlled the sea route to India. They had multiple fortified bases at Goa on the Arabian Sea, Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. These ports allowed ships loaded with Chinese silks to be transported to the Japanese port of Nagasaki and the Philippines, where they were then exchanged for Spanish silver from New Spain.

Throughout just Asia, the Portuguese would trade slaves, Asian spices that they brought to Portugal, textiles from India, gold and ivory from East Africa.

Describe the Spanish in terms of their global economy (talk more about their Asian influence)…

In the New World, they were essentially only a land empire; however, they built an incredible empire at Manila in the Philippines in 1571. In Manila, it served as a link between Spanish America and China. Therefore, Spanish traders used the silver from American mines to purchase Chinese silk for European markets. 

Describe the Dutch in terms of their global economy (only discuss Asia here)…

The dutch were HEAVILY Protestant and were engaged in a long war of independence from Spain. Therefore, after hearing about the alliance between Spain and Portugal, the Dutch decided to establish the Dutch East India Company in 1602, which focused on solely capturing the Asian spice trade from the Portuguese.

They believed that if they attacked the Portuguese, which had an alliance with Spain, then Spain would decline as well. As a result, the Dutch were able to assist Indonesian princes in local conflicts and disputes with the Portuguese, allowing the Dutch to gain commercial concessions and military alliances.

Therefore, with the Indonesian assistance, the Dutch were able to capture the fort of Malacca in 1641, gaining access to the Malay Archipelago and because the Dutch were willing to use force, they ended up also taking Sri Lanka in 1660 from the Portuguese.

Describe the Dutch in terms of their global economy (only discuss Americas here)…

The Dutch were also wanting to establish control over the Spanish in the Americas, so they used the Dutch East India Company to destroy HUNDREDS of Spanish ships, serzing their silver fleet in 1628 and capturing portions of Brazil and the Caribbean.

How did Christianity influence European beliefs in Asia?

Christianity was one of the most important reasons for conquest. Jesuit missionaries were active in Japan and China in the 16th-17th centuries until their teachings were banned there by authorities.

In terms of the New World, a group of 2,500 priests and friars of Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit, and other Catholic orders, aided Colombus on his second voyage. The same was true for French explorers, who preached ot the Native American tribes with whom they traded.

Protestants also led missionary efforts, but it was much smaller in number compared to Catholics, who built convents, churches, and cathedrals for converted indigenous peopole and European settlers.

What did many Europeans do to prevent indigenous people from reverting back to their religious beliefs or FORCING THEM to convert to Christianity?

Many Europeans would literally destroy shrines and objects of reliigous worship. They would also harshly prosecute men and women who continued to practice and participate in traditional spiritual rituals.

Then, to actually get them to convert, Catholic friars would sometimes seek an understanding of native cultures and languages to integrate Christianity into what they could comprehend. For example, in Mexico, friars not only learned Nahuatl, but also taught it to non-Nahuatl-speaking groups to create a shared language for Christian teachings.

There were many people that debated about the conversion of Christianity on the Indigenous Peoples. Explain this…

Many individuals, like Bartolome de Las Casas, a Dominican friar and former encomienda holder, believed that the treatment indigenous people were subjected to was horrendous, even writing that “the Spanish fell like ravening wolves upon the fold”.

As a result of this outlash against the spread of religion, Spain’s King Charles I assembled churchmen and lawyers to debate in 1550 in the city of Valladolid. In this debate, led on one side by Juan Gines de Speulveda, he stated that conversions were necesssary and justified to save indigenous people from the horrors of human sacrafice, cannibalism, and idoltary. Speulveda described them as barbarians lower than what Aristotal would describe.

Despite what Speulveda said, Las Casas stated that the Indigenous people were like children who deserved protection from a more advanced civilization. (both sides agreed that Europe was superior!)

In the end, although the exploitation did not end, the Spanish Crown used it to justify limiting the rights of settlers in favor of the Catholic Church and royal authorities and to increase legal protections for the communities (indigenous ones). Philip II even issued laws in new towns that must be formed and administerd in 1573.

How was race ORIGINALLY percieved before it’s definiton was revamped?

Originally, people saw differences in based on someone’s blood and how it tied them to a religious ideology. For example, you had “pure-blooded” Christians and on the other hand, Jews and conversos (people of Jewish origin that converted to Christianity). Then, you would have nations issue laws against people that weren’t 100% Christian, like Iberian rulers who would issue laws against conversos and Muslims.

How was race seen in the colonies?

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade transformed the meaning in the 16th century since there were now European, indigenous, and African people.

Spanish colonizers believed that the indigenous people were free from the sin and “impurity” since they had never been exposed to it and as a result, they could easily learn it. African individuals were viewed horribly, since it was believed that they refused the message of Christ that was preached in the Old World.

Despite this, it was nearly IMPOSSIBLE to segregate these people, since racial mixing started as soon as the first conquistadors arrived in the Americas. Instead, a complex system called castas was introduced in Spanish America to describe the different proportions of European, African, and Indigenous people. It was essentially a race heiarchy, with “pure” Spanish blood being at the top.

Dsecribe the concept of race using art…

It started in the Italian Renaissance when artists would create paintings that would include an African slave helping or standing by a European elite. The intention was to show their wealth and power.

One example was the painting by Anthony Van Dyck, which showed Marchesa Elena Cataneo shown with an African shielding her from the Sun.  

Who was Michel de Montaigne? Why was it that people found him famous?

He was a Frenchman who wrote about the New World, since there was a lot of skepticism about one religion containing the absolute truth and the idea of cultural relativism, saying that one culture is not necessarily superior to another, it’s just different.

Montaigne wrote about this cultural relativism, which was translated into multiple languages across Europe, becoming very popular. One of his essay’s was called “Of Cannibals” which wrote about the impact that the New World made on European views. He stated that in many parts, like Brazil, there was nothing barbarious and savage in that nation.

What kind of influence did William Shakepeare have?

He had an incredible influence in describing race and how women were portrayed in his play called Othello. Within this play, Othello (character) was described as a “Moor” (or Muslims of North African origin). This Moor was referred to as black in skin color and faced discrimination and prejudice from other characters.

In terms of women, it exposed their suffering at the hands of a patriarchal family. The fathers would treat unmarried daughters as property and husbands murder wives if they suspect infidelity.

What did King John II do?

King John II of Portugal established Casa da India in Lisbon to serve as a trading house with gold and other goods. It was through this Casa that the Crown created a monopoly over European goods and the import/distribution of spices.

They would charge taxes on all incoming goods.

What did the Portuguese do to secure the vast expanse of Brazil?

They created a system called captaincies, which were grants of land that were given to nobles and loyal officials who bore the costs of settling and maintaining their lands. However, this SYSTEM FAILED, so the Crown intervened and brought the captaincies under the control of state royal governors.

The captaincy of Bahia was the capitol and was the home to the governor general and other officials.

What did the Spanish do about their colonial administration?

They created a system that was similar to Portugal. In 1503, they granted the port of Seville the power to regulate ALL TRAFFIC into the New World and created The Casa De La Contratcion to oversee the ecnomic matters.

Additionally, they created the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies in 1524, which had authority over all colonial affairs. }

It was systems similar to these that allowed the Spanish to capture most indigenous groups and expand throughout modern-day Mexico, the Southwest US, and Central/South America.

Since Spain inhabited so much of the New World, what did they do?

They reated two viceroyalties, which were administrative divisions that controled a particular area. There were two viceroyalties: New Spain in 1535, and Peru in 1542. Eventually, they expanded to four by the 18th century.

In each viceroyalty, a imperial governor would have control over military and civil authority as the direct representative of Spain. He would preside over the audiencia, a board of 12-15 judges that served as his council and the highest judicial body

The French did a similar thing as this, where they would appoint military governors to rule alongside officials.

What was Spain’s encomienda system?

This system (encomienda) permitted people in the New World the right to employ groups of indigenous people as laborers or to demand some sort of resource from them in exchange for protection and shelter. This sytem though, STRONGLY focused on Christianity conversion. 

For example, a 1512 encomienda system called for Spanish people being authorized to treat indigenous people fairly, however, that did not work at all! The Spanish ended up abusing people, overworking them, beating them, sexually assaulting them. AS A RESULT, King Charles I created the New Laws in 1542, which set limits on the authority of the encomienda system. These Laws ended up recognizing the indigenous people who accepted Chrisianity and Spanish rule as FREE SUBJECTS. 

How did the New Laws that King Charles I of Spain created in 1542 be percieved by people in the New World?

These people absolutely hated it and even ignored it entirely. Specifically, there was a huge revolt in Peru againsted these New Laws and instead of listening to their enforcement, like not being able to enslave indigenous people that were Christian and part of the Spanish Crown, they still enslaved them.

How was society in the Colonies (colonies being all throughout the European powers)? Hint: this involves women!!!

Many individuals that settled did not have women from Europe, so they acclimated with the women of indigenous tribes, relying on them to translate and guides to form alliances with other indigenous powers.

The new settlements that were created took on a lot of European culture, where they spoke in a European language, its religion, and the way of life in Europe. It was rare for a European culture to turn into an Asian or Indigenous one.

Most women who crossed the Atlantic were from Africa and constituted for 4/5 of the total female newcomers before the 19th century.

How did the Colombian Exchange both benefit and negate the Indigenous population?

Benefits:
It brought tons of new materials to them, like guns and other militia resources. Most importantly, it brought the meat and milk of livestock (cattle, sheep, goats). 

Negative:
BY FAR it was disease, which was exchangeed through the conversations Europeans had with natives and the trading that happened. Smallpox was the biggest killer and overall, it was estimated that around 90% of the population died.