myers ap psych unit 2

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface measured by electrodes placed on the scalp, yielding evoked potentials that allow researchers to make inferences thereof.

computerised axial tomography (CAT)

generates cross-sectional images of the brain using a series of X-ray pictures taken at different angles.

magnetic resonanceirmaging (MRI)

produces more detailed images; uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material. Unlike X-rays and CT scans, MRIs don't use any radiation, so the pt is not exposed to carcinogens.

positron emission tomography (PET)

a visual display of brain activity that depicts where the radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. also used to measure metabolic processes, blood flow, regional chemical composition, absorption, etc.

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with brain activity.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

dendrites

rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body; grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

soma

the cell body of a neuron, contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life.

axon

also called nerve fibre, the portion of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

multiple sclerosis (MS)

immune system attacks myelin of neurons in CNS; impacts thinking, mood, stability, and vision.

alzheimer's disease (AD)

disruption of myelin of neurons that produce ACh; impacts memory and other cognitive functions.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in thinking, learning, and memory.

terminal buttons

the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters (also called end buttons, terminal branches of axons, and synaptic knobs).

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

synaptic cleft

the small gap between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the membrane of the postsynaptic cell.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

resting membrane potential

electric potential across the plasma membrane is -70 mV and the interior of the cell is negatively charged with respect to the exterior.

leak channels

channels that are always open and allow ions to move across the membrane according to their gradient.

all-or-none principle

if a single nerve fibre is stimulated, it will always give a maximal response and produce an electrical impulse of the single amplitude.

depolarization

change from the resting membrane potential to a less negative, or even positive, potential, caused by movement of ions into and out of the neuron through ion channels, leading to an eventual release of a neurotransmitter.

hyperpolarization

a change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative -- the opposite of depolarization.

excitatory neurons

cause other neurons to fire. Examples: Glutamate, Ach, and norepinephrine.

inhibitory neurons

prevent other neurons from firing.

* ex. GABA, serotonin, hlycine, endorphins, etc.

acetylcholine (ACh)

* memory and muscle movement.
* lack of Ach is associated with Alzheimer's Disease.

serotonin

* related to arousal, sleep, pain sensitivity, and mood and hunger regulation.
* low serotonin - depression

dopamine

* regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal.
* lack of dopamine - parkinson’s
* extreme dopamine - schizophrenia

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

* implicated in inhibiting nerve transmission.
* seizures, poor sleep, epilepsy

glutamate

* a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.
* low levels - mental exhaustion
* extreme - Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's Disease (Chorea)

endorphins

* natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
* involved in addictions

norepinephrine

* alertness and arousal.
* low - depression
* high - panic attacks, high BP, hyperactivity

agonist

a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

antagonist

A chemical substance that blocks or reduces the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Adrenaline

Plays an essential role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, CO, pupil dilation response, and blood sugar level.

Oxytocin

Hormone released by the posterior pituitary; implicated in social bonding, reproduction, childbirth, and the postpartum period.

Cortisol

Produced by the adrenal glands; helps regulate the body's response to stress.

Testosterone

Involved in sexual arousal and competition (not aggression) in males; helps with the growth, maintenance, and repair of a female's reproductive tissues, bone mass, and the regulation of behavior.

Estrogen

Produced by the ovaries or testes; development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics, helps regulate libido, erectile functions, and spermatogenesis in males.

Leptin

Turns off hunger.

Ghrelin

Turns on hunger (think grrr, borborygmi sounds).

Melatonin

Regulates circadian rhythms.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

Expressed traits

Heritability

Explains the variations in traits that may be due to genetic differences in a given population.

0 \= Genetics explain NOTHING about the trait.

1 \= Genetics explain EVERYTHING about the trait.

DOES NOT indicate which proportion of the trait is determined by nature or nurture OR the extent to which they are passed down from parents to their children.

Environmentality

The degree to which a trait's expression is caused by the environment in which an organism lives.

a. Sodium-potassium pump

Which of the following is a factor that contributes to the unequal distribution of ions in a resting neuron?

a. Sodium-potassium pump

b. Dopamine transporter

c. The higher proportion of proteins in the extracellular space d. Endoplasmic reticulum

e. Action potentials

d. Kicking and punching while asleep

Which of the following is a symptom of REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)?

a. Urinating while asleep

b. Snoring while asleep

c. Irregular sleep

d. Kicking and punching while asleep

e. Crying while asleep

a. Ovaries

Which of the following produces testosterone?

a. Ovaries

b. Pineal gland

c. Thyroid gland

d. Parathyroid gland

e. Acromegaly

c. Serotonin

LSD binds strongly to \________ receptors.

a. Ach

b. Norepinephrine

c. Serotonin

d. Glutamate

e. Glycine

Fissures

Deep grooves in the brain

Sulci (sulcus)

Shallow grooves surrounding the gyrus

Gyri (gyrus)

Ridges of the cortex

Conscious level

The information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of.

Nonconscious level

Body processes controlled by your mind that we are not aware of (heartbeat, respiration, and digestion).

Preconscious level

Info about yourself and environment that you are currently not thinking about.

Subconscious level

Information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior (mere exposure effect, priming).

Unconscious level

Psychoanalytic psychologists believe some events and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into the unconscious mind.

Circadian Rhythm

Natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours.

Dyssomnias

Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep.

Parasomnias

Unusual and undesirable physical events or experiences that disrupt sleep.

Insomnia

Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep apnea

- Temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

- Overweight men are at a higher risk.

- Sleep apnea can be treated by using respiratory machines such as CPAP.

Night terrors

High arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. May include episodes of screaming, intense fear, and flailing while still asleep.

Depressants

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions; they can cause ataxia, dizziness, and respiratory depression.

Alcohol

Slowed neural processing, memory disruption, lower self-control or awareness; prolonged and excessive drinking can cause alcohol use disorder, which can bring about delirium tremens.

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress the CNS, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment; they are often used to treat epilepsy and seizures, insomnia, and for anesthetic purposes; combined with other depressants such as alcohol, they can be lethal.

Opiates

Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety; they are highly addictive since they rapidly change brain chemistry.

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Caffeine

A mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances; can increase alertness and wakefulness but can also cause anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses.

Nicotine

A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco; causes arousal and relaxation, brings about a sense of wellbeing; decreases appetite while increasing HR and respiration; high doses may result in heart diseases and cancer.

Amphetanines

Euphoria, increases temp. and HR; used to treat ADHD, Narcolepsy, and obesity; large doses can impair cog. and cause rhabdo.

Methamphetamine

A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. Over time, it appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels; at high levels, can induce irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures, depression, and violent outbursts.