Key Issues in Psychology: Gender, Culture, and Ethics

What is gender bias in psychology?

Gender bias is the distorted view that behaviors observed may be typical for both men and women, resulting in differential treatment and/or representation based on stereotypes rather than real differences.

What does androcentrism refer to in psychological theories?

Androcentrism refers to theories or views based exclusively on a male viewpoint, considering male behavior as normal and female behavior as deviant or inferior.

How has psychology historically been influenced by gender bias?

Psychology has been male-dominated, with most psychologists being men, leading to theories that reflect a male-centered worldview.

What is alpha bias?

Alpha bias is the exaggeration of differences between men and women, resulting in theories that devalue one gender compared to another.

Give an example of alpha bias in psychology.

Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytical Theory portrayed women as inferior to men, suggesting that femininity is a failed masculinity.

What is beta bias?

Beta bias occurs when differences between men and women are minimized or ignored, often assuming findings from studies with men apply equally to women.

Provide an example of beta bias in research.

Milgram's obedience study involved only men, and assuming the results would apply to women is an example of beta bias.

What is the tend-and-befriend response in females?

The tend-and-befriend response is a female-specific reaction to stress that was overlooked due to research primarily conducted on male animals.

What is the significance of universality in psychological theories?

Universality aims to develop theories that apply to all people, recognizing real differences without implying superiority of one gender.

How can gender bias occur in the research process?

Gender bias can occur through institutional sexism, standardised procedures assuming equal responses from both genders, and publication bias favoring studies that find gender differences.

What is an example of androcentrism in autism research?

Autism research has been criticized for being androcentric, with diagnostic criteria based largely on male symptoms, leading to potential misdiagnosis in females.

What does cultural relativism contribute to gender bias?

Cultural relativism can lead to alpha bias by assuming real differences between genders, causing psychologists to overlook universal traits across cultures.

What is the impact of Freud's concept of 'penis envy'?

Freud's concept of 'penis envy' is viewed as inherently gender-biased and reflects an androcentric perspective on female psychology.

How did Wilson's sociobiological theory exhibit alpha bias?

Wilson's theory suggested that male sexual promiscuity is genetically determined while female promiscuity is against their nature, leading to prejudice.

What is a consequence of beta bias in psychological research?

Beta bias can result in the needs of one gender, often women, being ignored in psychological theories and practices.

How did Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development demonstrate beta bias?

Kohlberg's theory was based on research with boys and men, assuming that male responses would apply to females without adequate evidence.

What is the role of publication bias in gender bias research?

Publication bias occurs when studies that find gender differences are favored over those that do not, skewing the understanding of gender in psychology.

What is the relationship between gender bias and the research agenda?

Institutional sexism can lead to a research agenda dominated by male concerns, affecting the focus and outcomes of psychological studies.

How can standardised procedures contribute to gender bias?

Standardised procedures may assume that men and women respond the same way, potentially overlooking significant differences.

What is the implication of assuming male findings apply to females in research?

Assuming male findings apply to females can lead to inadequate understanding and treatment of women's psychological needs.

What is the importance of recognizing gender differences in psychology?

Recognizing gender differences is crucial to avoid bias and ensure that psychological theories and practices are equitable and applicable to all genders.

What is the potential effect of cultural relativism on gender bias?

Cultural relativism can lead to beta bias by ignoring real cultural differences and assuming that findings from one culture apply universally.

What did Rosenthal (1966) find regarding male experimenters and female participants?

Male experimenters were more pleasant to female participants, potentially affecting results.

How is culture defined in the context of cultural bias?

Culture is defined as the values, beliefs, and patterns of behavior shared by a group of people.

What is cultural bias?

Cultural bias is the tendency to judge people based on one's own cultural assumptions, interpreting behavior through the values and beliefs of one's own society.

What does universality mean in psychological theories?

Universality refers to a theory that applies to all people, irrespective of gender and culture, and must include real differences.

What is ethnocentrism?

Ethnocentrism is the assumption that one's own ethnic or cultural group is superior to others, viewing one's own behaviors and beliefs as 'normal' or superior.

How can ethnocentrism lead to bias in psychological research?

Ethnocentrism can lead to alpha bias by devaluing other cultures and to beta bias if researchers believe their worldview is the only valid one.

What is an example of ethnocentrism in psychological assessments?

Ainsworth's Strange Situation is considered ethnocentric as it was developed based on Western childrearing ideals.

What is cultural relativism?

Cultural relativism is the idea that all cultures are worthy of respect and should be understood within their own context.

How can cultural relativism lead to alpha bias?

Cultural relativism can lead to alpha bias by overlooking universal similarities in favor of assumed real differences.

What is an emic construct?

An emic construct applies only to one cultural group and is investigated from within that culture.

What is an etic construct?

An etic construct is a theoretical idea assumed to apply across all cultural groups and is considered universal.

What is an imposed etic?

An imposed etic occurs when a construct or technique from one culture is inappropriately applied to another culture.

What are indigenous psychologies?

Indigenous psychologies are theories that draw on the experiences of people in different cultural contexts, such as Afrocentrism.

What does Afrocentrism suggest about psychological theories?

Afrocentrism suggests that psychological theories about black people should be rooted in African-centered values.

How can cultural bias affect the diagnosis of mental disorders?

Cultural bias can lead to misdiagnosis when criteria relevant only in Western cultures are applied without considering cultural context.

What criticisms have been made about the DSM system?

The DSM system has been criticized for ignoring culture-bound syndromes found in other parts of the world.

What did Milgram's obedience study reveal when replicated in other cultures?

Milgram's study showed differing obedience rates, suggesting the original results were culture-bound.

What is the difference between an emic and etic approach?

An emic approach investigates a culture from within, while an etic approach looks at behavior from the outside.

What is the potential issue with assuming an emic construct is etic?

Cultural bias can occur when a researcher mistakenly assumes an emic construct applies universally.

What is alpha bias in the context of cultural psychology?

Alpha bias occurs when real differences between cultures are emphasized, potentially leading to devaluation of other cultures.

What is beta bias in cultural psychology?

Beta bias occurs when researchers ignore cultural differences, believing their worldview is the only valid perspective.

How can definitions of abnormality vary by culture?

Definitions of abnormality can differ, and judging other cultures by one's own standards can lead to misdiagnosis.

What is the issue with much psychological research according to Smith and Bond (1998)?

A significant amount is based on unrepresentative samples, primarily Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) participants.

What did Sears (1986) find about the demographics of psychology studies?

Most studies used American psychology students.

What are some psychological aspects that may be universal across cultures?

Basic facial expressions like happiness, anger, and fear, as well as interactional synchrony and reciprocity in infant-caregiver interactions.

What is free will in the context of psychology?

The idea that an individual is capable of self-determination and controlling their behavior, suggesting that people can choose and are not solely influenced by internal or external pressures.

How does the humanistic approach view free will?

It adopts a free will perspective, emphasizing self-determination as important for self-development and self-actualization.

What is determinism in psychology?

The belief that behavior is governed by internal or external forces, meaning individuals have no control or choice over their actions.

What is hard determinism?

The view that all behavior is shaped by forces outside of our control, making it predictable and incompatible with free will.

What is soft determinism?

An alternative view where behavior is constrained by environmental or biological factors, but individuals still have some choice.

What is biological determinism?

The belief that behavior is caused by internal biological forces beyond our control, such as genes and brain structure.

Give an example of biological determinism in behavior.

Research into the human genome shows genetic influences on behavior, such as the IGF2R gene linked to intelligence.

What is environmental determinism?

The view that behavior is influenced by external forces, such as previous experiences learned through conditioning.

Provide an example of environmental determinism.

Phobias can develop due to conditioning, as demonstrated by Watson and Rayner's Little Albert experiment.

What does psychic determinism suggest about behavior?

It posits that adult behavior is determined by innate drives and early experiences, as proposed by Freud.

How does the scientific method relate to determinism?

Science seeks causal explanations, manipulating independent variables to observe their effects on dependent variables.

What is the relationship between free will and moral responsibility?

The concept of free will is linked to moral responsibility, as the law assumes normal adult behavior is self-determined.

What does the nature-nurture debate address?

It concerns the extent to which behavior is influenced by biology (nature) versus the environment (nurture).

What does the nature perspective suggest about behavior?

Behavior is the product of innate biological or genetic factors, including genes, neurochemistry, and neurological structures.

What is nativism in the context of human behavior?

Nativism is the belief that we are born with predispositions and pre-programmed behaviors.

What is heredity?

Heredity is the process by which traits are passed down genetically.

How do family, twin, and adoption studies contribute to understanding behavior?

They show that closer genetic relatedness correlates with similar behaviors, as seen in disorders like schizophrenia.

What does the nurture perspective emphasize regarding behavior?

Behavior is the product of environmental influences, including people, events, and the physical world.

What is empiricism in the context of human behavior?

Empiricism holds that the human mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) filled by experience.

How do behaviorists explain behavior?

Behaviorists explain all behavior in terms of experience and learning, such as classical and operant conditioning.

What does Social Learning Theory propose about behavior acquisition?

It suggests behavior is acquired through learning, observation, and vicarious reinforcement, while acknowledging biology's role.

What is the double bind theory in relation to schizophrenia?

It suggests that schizophrenia is caused by disordered communication within the family.

What is the interactionist approach to behavior?

It argues that both genetics and the environment play a part in behavior, with genetics providing predisposition and the environment moderating expression.

What does the diathesis-stress model suggest?

It suggests that a genetic predisposition (diathesis) and an environmental trigger (stressor) are needed for disorders like schizophrenia to develop.

How does PKU illustrate the interaction of genetics and environment?

PKU is a genetic disorder that is not expressed if the environment includes a low-protein diet.

What is neural plasticity?

Neural plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change structure due to experience, such as enlarged hippocampi in taxi drivers.

What is gene-environment interaction?

It describes how genes and environment influence development together.

What are the three types of gene-environment interactions described by Plomin et al. (1977)?

1. Passive interaction: Parents pass genes and provide an environment. 2. Evocative/Reactive interaction: Heritable traits influence reactions from others. 3. Active interaction (niche-picking): Heritable traits influence a child's choice of environment.

What is epigenetics?

Epigenetics refers to environmental factors altering gene expression, which can be passed across generations.

What does holism focus on in psychology?

Holism focuses on systems as a whole rather than individual parts, suggesting behavior can only be understood by analyzing the person or behavior as a whole.

What is Gestalt psychology's approach to perception?

Gestalt psychology adopts a holistic approach, arguing that we perceive things as a whole.

How does humanistic psychology relate to holism?

Humanistic psychology believes individuals react as an organized whole, considering social context and relationships.

What is an example of a holistic approach to understanding social behavior?

Analyzing interactions and the whole group to understand behaviors like conformity or de-individuation, such as in the Stanford Prison Experiment.

What does reductionism involve in the analysis of behavior?

Reductionism involves breaking down behavior into its individual parts, based on the scientific principle of parsimony.

What is the principle of parsimony in scientific analysis?

The principle of parsimony suggests that phenomena should be explained using the most basic principles, similar to Occam's Razor.

What does the reductionist approach suggest about behavior?

It suggests there are different levels of explanation for behavior.

What are the three levels of explanation in the reductionist approach?

Physiological/biological, psychological, and social/cultural.

How can depression be explained at different levels according to the reductionist approach?

Biologically (genes, neurotransmitters), psychologically (cognitive triad, ABC model), or socio-culturally (withdrawal from social activities).

What is biological reductionism?

It explains behavior using biological systems such as genetics, physiology, biochemistry, and evolution.

Give an example of biological reductionism in explaining schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia can be explained by excessive dopamine.

What is environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism?

It explains behavior in terms of simple stimulus-response relationships, viewing complex behaviors as S-R chains.

How are phobias explained in the context of environmental reductionism?

Phobias are explained as the result of conditioning.

What does the interactionist approach argue regarding levels of explanation?

It argues that several levels of explanation are necessary to explain behavior and considers how different levels interact.

What is the difference between idiographic and nomothetic approaches in psychology?

Idiographic focuses on individual cases, while nomothetic aims to discover universal laws of human behavior.

What methods are typically used in the idiographic approach?

Qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews, case studies, or thematic analysis.

Provide an example of idiographic research.

Sigmund Freud's case studies, such as Little Hans and The Rat Man.

How does the nomothetic approach study behavior?

It studies large numbers of people to establish general principles and universal laws.

What type of methods does the nomothetic approach favor?

Quantitative methods based on numbers and statistical analysis.

What are the three general laws produced by the nomothetic approach according to Radford and Kirby?

Classifying people into groups, establishing principles of behavior, and establishing dimensions for comparison.

Give an example of a nomothetic explanation in psychology.

Behaviorist explanations such as classical and operant conditioning.

What is the focus of the idiographic approach in psychology?

It focuses on the individual and their unique subjective experiences, motivations, and values.

What does the term 'idiographic' mean?

It comes from the Greek 'idios', meaning 'private or personal'.

How does the idiographic approach differ from the nomothetic approach in terms of generalization?

The idiographic approach does not seek to formulate laws or generalize results.