The Legacy of the Revolutionary War, 1783–1815

These flashcards cover key events and terms related to military policy and significant developments in the U.S. from 1783 to 1815, including the period surrounding the Revolutionary War and the early years of the Republic.

What events in 1783 reawakened American fears of a standing army?

The Newburgh Conspiracy (officers hinted at defying Congress), the creation of the Society of the Cincinnati (fears of hereditary elite), and the mutiny of unpaid troops in Pennsylvania (Congress forced to flee) exposed fragile civil-military relations.

Describe the military policy under the Confederation government post-Revolutionary War.

The federal government had no real power to maintain a national military, relying on state militias. Only a small federal force existed, and threats like Shays' Rebellion exposed the ineffectiveness of this system.

Explain the constitutional doctrines regarding military policy.

The U.S. Constitution (1788) gave Congress authority to raise armies, maintain a navy, declare war, and regulate militias. It also ensured civilian control by making the President commander-in-chief and requiring regular congressional funding approval (max two years).

Describe early national government military actions under the Constitution.

Congress established the War Department (1789) and a small army. Early defeats in the Northwest Indian War (Harmar, St. Clair) led to the reorganization into the more professional Legion of the United States under General Anthony Wayne, who won the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794).

Discuss Indian relations in the American West from 1790–1795.

Native American confederations, backed by British, resisted U.S. expansion in the Northwest Territory, causing major U.S. defeats (e.g., St. Clair 1791). General Anthony Wayne's victory at Fallen Timbers (1794) and the Treaty of Greenville (1795) opened Ohio to settlement, highlighting the military's role in westward expansion.

Explain the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion (1794).

An insurrection in western Pennsylvania against a federal tax on whiskey, suppressed by President Washington leading militia. It was the first major test of federal authority under the new Constitution, affirming the government's ability to enforce laws and the army's role under civilian control.

Describe Federalist policy regarding the U.S. Navy.

The Federalist Party supported a strong navy to protect U.S. shipping, particularly during tensions with France. Congress authorized a buildup including ships like the USS Constitution, which proved vital during the Quasi-War (1798–1800), laying groundwork for a professional naval force.

Describe the Federalist military policy legacy.

They established a professional officer corps, supported West Point (1802), and invested in the Navy. Their policies emphasized centralized control, training, and preparedness, creating basic military structures that persisted and shaped U.S. armed forces development.

Describe Jefferson's military policy to 1807.

Distrusting large armies, Jefferson cut military spending, reduced the Army, emphasized state militias, and adopted a 'gunboat navy' strategy. However, the Barbary Wars necessitated a professional navy and flexible military, as tensions with Britain rose.

List the factors that led the U.S. into the War of 1812.

British impressment of American sailors, British interference with U.S. trade, British support for Native American resistance (Tecumseh), and 'War Hawk' (Henry Clay) demands for defense of honor and potential conquest of Canada, combined with national pride.

Explain the U.S. military handicaps in the War of 1812.

Small, inexperienced, underfunded Regular Army; militias often refused to serve federally or outside state borders; logistical problems (shortages, untrained officers); and political resistance to military expansion, especially from New England Federalists. Led to early defeats like Detroit's surrender.

Describe the opposition to the War of 1812 in the U.S.

Strong opposition, particularly in New England (merchants, Federalists) who saw it as harmful to trade and favoring other regions. The Hartford Convention (1814) discussed constitutional changes and even secession, showing deep regional divisions and concerns about military power for political gain.

List the theaters of war in the War of 1812.

The Canadian front (Great Lakes, Niagara frontier), the Atlantic Coast (U.S. Navy vs. Royal Navy, British raids like burning Washington, D.C.), and the southern theater (Gulf Coast, Battle of New Orleans).

Explain the military situation on the Canadian front in 1812.

U.S. invasion attempts were disastrous due to poor coordination, inexperienced leaders, and militia refusals. General William Hull's surrender of Detroit was a major failure. British, Canadian militias, and Native allies mounted strong resistance, revealing U.S. underestimation.

Describe the role of the U.S. Navy in the War of 1812.

Despite being smaller, the Navy performed impressively, with frigates like USS Constitution winning duels. Naval control of the Great Lakes was crucial (Perry at Lake Erie, Macdonough at Lake Champlain), helping prevent British dominance and defending borders, providing morale boosts.

Explain U.S. war policy in 1813.

Focused on recovery and momentum-building. Prioritized control of the Great Lakes for Canadian operations, pushed into the Northwest (defeating Tecumseh), made incremental gains, and improved supply/training systems, slowly professionalizing the Army.

Describe the British military offensives in 1814 and their results.

After Napoleon's defeat, Britain invaded and burned Washington, D.C., but failed to capture Baltimore (Fort McHenry). A British invasion down Lake Champlain was repelled by the U.S. Navy at Plattsburgh. These mixed results encouraged peace talks.

Describe the results of the Treaty of Ghent (1814).

Ended the War of 1812, restoring pre-war boundaries (status quo) with no territorial changes. U.S. dropped impressment demands; Britain withdrew from U.S. territory. Sparked U.S. nationalism and reinforced the importance of a professional military, especially the Navy.

What three significant developments impacted U.S. military policy in the 1820s and 1830s?

1) Institutional Reforms & Professionalization (West Point, staff bureaus), 2) Industrial Technology (interchangeable parts, steam power beginning to affect weapons/logistics), and 3) Geographic & Strategic Expansion (Army's role in westward settlement).

Describe naval developments in post-War of 1812 America.

The Navy modernized slowly due to tight budgets, focusing on protecting merchant shipping, suppressing piracy, anti-slavery patrols, and 'showing the flag'. Ships were mostly sailing vessels, but some steam paddle vessels were built, dry docks improved, and the Board of Navy Commissioners strengthened.

What was American defense policy in the 1820s and 1830s?

It rested on coastal fortification ('Third System'), a small standing Army for peacetime/frontier duties, a Navy for commerce protection/anti-piracy, and reliance on militia for major wars. Assumed foreign invasion was unlikely, but coastal attacks were possible.

How did the Army use Industrial Revolution technology?

Springfield Armory and Harper’s Ferry experimented with interchangeable parts, precision machining, and mechanized gunstocking, improving muskets and rifles. The Army also expanded topographical mapping and new artillery casting techniques, becoming a leading technological institution.

How did the Navy use Industrial Revolution technology?

It cautiously adopted steam propulsion (first paddle, then screw propellers). Improved naval guns influenced ship design. Naval yards upgraded with machine shops. The transition from sail to steam was slow due to high costs, weak coal networks, and officer resistance.

What characterized American military theory in the 1820s and 1830s?

Strong engineering focus (West Point), emphasizing defensive coastal fortification, a small professional Army as a cadre for wartime expansion, and militia as the primary wartime force. European models influenced tactics, but U.S. theory remained conservative, stressing limited war.

Describe American military culture after the War of 1812.

The Army was small, isolated on frontier posts, bureaucratic, professional, and engineer-oriented. Officers saw themselves as scientific nation-builders. Social life was insular with discipline problems among enlisted men. Civilian suspicion of large armies persisted.

What was the Army's role in American westward expansion?

It was the primary federal institution on the frontier, surveying lands, building infrastructure (roads, forts), escorting settlers, acting as Indian agents, and enforcing federal Indian policy, including removal (e.g., Trail of Tears). Engineers mapped the West and facilitated development.

Describe the Navy's role in international relations from 1838–1861.

Expanded into global policing (Pacific, East India, African Squadrons for anti-slave patrols), served diplomatic functions (treaty enforcement, presence in Japan), and protected expanding American whaling, Pacific commerce, and China trade.

What was the Army's role in Indian relations in the 1830s?

Enforced the Indian Removal Act (1830) and relocated tribes. Conducted costly campaigns like the Black Hawk War and the Second Seminole War. Acted as 'peacekeepers' between tribes and settlers, generally siding with expansion.

What were President Polk's foreign policy problems in 1845?

Annexation of Texas created tension with Mexico, a boundary dispute in Oregon with Britain, and the desire to acquire California and New Mexico from Mexico. Polk needed to manage these without triggering a two-front war, preparing for Mexico while avoiding Britain.

Describe Zachary Taylor’s Southern Texas / North Mexico campaign during the Mexican War.

Taylor advanced from Nueces to Rio Grande, built Fort Texas, won Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma (1846), then captured Monterrey after urban fighting. His army faced supply issues, heat, and long distances. His victories built his national reputation.

Which groups of Americans opposed the Mexican War?

Whigs (saw it as aggression for slave states), Abolitionists (opposed slavery's spread), some New England merchants (feared trade disruption), anti-expansionist intellectuals, and some clergy. A minority of Democrats also distrusted Polk's motives.

How did President Polk direct the Mexican War strategy?

Polk micromanaged from Washington, shifting support from Taylor to Winfield Scott (due to Taylor's political popularity). He wanted Northern Mexico seized and a decisive blow via Veracruz and Mexico City. He also orchestrated diplomatic pressure and tried to control Whig generals' political gains.

Describe Taylor’s campaign for Monterrey (September 1846).

Taylor divided forces, attacking from two directions. Intense house-to-house urban combat (U.S. troops used 'mouse-holing'). Resulted in a negotiated cease-fire allowing Mexican withdrawal, which enraged Polk. Monterrey provided a base but stretched Taylor's army thin.

Describe the Battle of Buena Vista (February 1847).

Santa Anna attacked Taylor’s smaller army (approx. 5,000 vs. 15,000). Taylor held defensive high ground at La Angostura pass. Mississippi Rifles (Jefferson Davis) stabilized the U.S. line. Santa Anna withdrew due to exhaustion/casualties, cementing Taylor’s fame.

Describe Winfield Scott’s campaign to Mexico City.

First major American amphibious landing (Veracruz, March 1847) followed by siege and surrender. Advanced inland with victories at Cerro Gordo, Jalapa, Puebla, then campaigned in the Valley of Mexico (Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, Chapultepec). Captured Mexico City (Sept 1847). Noted for logistical planning, discipline, and political sensitivity.

Describe the results of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848).

Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as the Texas border. The U.S. gained California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado/Wyoming, paying $15 million and assuming American citizen claims. Massive expansion reopened national conflict over slavery. Militarily, validated West Point officers, logistics, joint Army-Navy ops.