The Legacy of the Revolutionary War, 1783–1815
Chapter 4 — The Legacy of the Revolutionary War, 1783–1815
Fears of a Standing Army in 1783
Objective: Describe the events of 1783 that reawakened American fears of a standing army.
In 1783, three significant incidents caused Americans to fear a standing army and unease regarding military power.
Newburgh Conspiracy:
Occurred when Continental Army officers, dissatisfied due to unpaid wages and pensions, hinted at defiance against Congress.
Washington’s Newburgh Address calmed the crisis but highlighted fears of military rebellion among civilians.
Society of the Cincinnati:
A private organization for Continental officers that allowed membership to pass from father to son.
Raised public concerns about a hereditary military elite jeopardizing republican values.
Mutiny of Unpaid Troops:
In Pennsylvania, unpaid troops marched on Philadelphia, prompting Congress to flee.
The local militia's refusal to defend Congress illustrated the fragility of civil-military relations and reinforced fears regarding a large standing army's threat to republicanism.
Military Policy Under the Confederation Government
Objective: Discuss the Confederation government's post-Revolutionary War military policy.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the federal government lacked real power to sustain a national military.
Due to general fears of a standing army, military defense was primarily the responsibility of state militias.
The only federal military force consisted of a small number of troops tasked with guarding western frontiers and federal property.
Internal threats like Shays’ Rebellion unveiled the inefficacy of relying solely on state militias when Congress could not raise troops to respond effectively, ultimately leading to the push for a stronger constitutional government.
Military Clauses in the Constitution
Objective: Explain the constitutional doctrines regarding military policy.
Ratified in 1788, the U.S. Constitution established significant military provisions.
Congressional Authority:
Congress was empowered to raise and fund armies, maintain a navy, declare war, and regulate militias.
Civilian Control:
The Constitution positioned the President as commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
Required regular congressional approval for military funding, limiting appropriations to a maximum duration of two years.
These provisions represent a balance between the need for national defense and accountability to elected officials, preventing military independence from political control.
Early Military Actions Under the New Government
Objective: Describe early national government military actions under the Constitution.
Following the adoption of the Constitution, the federal government began developing the military infrastructure.
War Department Creation: Established in 1789; formalized military organization.
Formation of a National Army: By the early 1790s, efforts were underway to build a small national army.
Challenges:
The Northwest Indian War erupted due to conflicts between American settlers and Native confederacies.
Initial military engagements under Generals Harmar and St. Clair resulted in defeats in 1790 and 1791, demonstrating unpreparedness.
Military Reorganization:
Under General Anthony Wayne, military forces were restructured into the Legion of the United States, revealing the necessity for a trained army to counter significant threats.
The Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 represented a successful engagement, reinforcing military capabilities despite prior skepticism.
Indian Relations in the West (1790–1795)
Objective: Discuss Indian relations in the west from 1790–1795.
In the early 1790s, Native American tribes in the Northwest Territory established a confederation to oppose U.S. expansion.
At times supported by British entities, they fought to protect their territories.
Major defeats Vied for American forces, notably under General Arthur St. Clair in 1791.
Following reforms in military leadership:
General Wayne defeated the Native confederation at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794.
The Treaty of Greenville in 1795 resulted, opening a considerable portion of Ohio to white settlement, marking a pivotal moment in Native-U.S. relations and illustrating military influence in westward expansion.
The Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Objective: Explain the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion.
The Whiskey Rebellion erupted in western Pennsylvania, where small farmers protested a federal whiskey tax through violent resistance.
In 1794, President George Washington's mobilization of thousands of militia troops signaled strong federal authority to suppress civil unrest.
Although resistance dissipated before combat, the event marked the first significant test of federal power under the new Constitution.
The military's involvement underscored the government’s capacity to enforce laws, reinforcing the idea that a carefully regulated army could operate under civilian leadership without infringing on liberties.
Federalist Naval Policy
Objective: Describe Federalist policy regarding the U.S. Navy.
The Federalist Party advocated for a robust navy to safeguard American shipping interests, especially amid heightened tensions with France during the 1790s.
Following American ships' attacks by French privateers, Congress authorized naval expansion, including the construction of six new warships (notably the USS Constitution).
During the Quasi-War with France (1798–1800), the navy played a critical role in defending commerce and proved invaluable for national defense, laying foundations for a professional naval force.
Federalist Military Legacy
Objective: Describe the Federalist military policy legacy.
Despite a brief political tenure, the Federalists established a substantial military legacy.
They developed a professional officer corps and supported the founding of West Point in 1802.
Investments in the navy reflected their strategic emphasis on centralized control, military training, and national readiness.
These reforms shaped military institutions that endured and influenced future U.S. armed forces operations.
Jefferson’s Military Policy (to 1807)
Objective: Describe Jefferson's military policy to 1807.
Upon taking office in 1801, President Thomas Jefferson expressed skepticism towards large standing armies.
Advocating for limited government and lower taxes, he cut military expenditures, downsized the Army, and emphasized state militias for defense.
Adopted a gunboat navy strategy, focusing on the development of small coastal defense vessels over larger ocean-going ships.
Jefferson’s policies were challenged during the Barbary Wars when he had to deploy naval forces against pirates threatening U.S. trade in the Mediterranean, showcasing a newfound acknowledgment of the necessity for a professional navy amidst rising tensions with Britain.
Causes of the War of 1812
Objective: List the factors that led the U.S. into the War of 1812.
Various issues propelled the U.S. towards war with Britain by 1812.
Impressment: The British Navy resumed impressment of American sailors, forcibly recruiting them for British service.
Trade Interference: British actions during the Napoleonic Wars hindered American commerce.
Support for Native Resistance: British agents backed Native American resistance to U.S. westward expansion, particularly with figures like Tecumseh at the forefront.
Many Americans, particularly War Hawks in Congress (e.g., Henry Clay), felt compelled to defend national honor and even considered the possibility of conquering Canada.
These combined factors contributed to a growing sense of national pride and culminated in Congress declaring war on Britain in June 1812.
U.S. Military Weaknesses in 1812
Objective: Explain the U.S. military handicaps in the War of 1812.
At the commencement of the War of 1812, the U.S. military confronted multiple shortcomings.
The regular Army was characterized by its small size, inexperience, and insufficient funding.
State militias often resisted serving under federal authority or outside their borders.
Logistical challenges arose, including supply shortages, inadequately trained officers, and political opposition to military expansion, largely from New England Federalists who opposed the war.
These weaknesses resulted in early defeats, such as the surrender of Detroit, revealing the readiness deficit for large-scale warfare.
Opposition to the War
Objective: Describe the opposition to the War of 1812 in the U.S.
The War of 1812 encountered robust opposition, particularly in New England.
Merchants and Federalists perceived the war as detrimental to trade, serving predominantly Southern and Western interests.
The discord escalated among delegates from several New England states who convened at the Hartford Convention in late 1814 to discuss possible constitutional changes, with some considering secession.
While refraining from treason, the convention illustrated profound regional divides concerning war policy and solidified concerns regarding military power's potential political exploitation.
Theaters of the War of 1812
Objective: List the theaters of war in the War of 1812.
The War of 1812 unfolded across three main theaters:
Canadian Front:
Included battles along the Great Lakes and the Niagara frontier, with multiple failed U.S. invasion attempts.
Atlantic Coast:
Featured clashes between the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy, along with British raids on coastal cities, resulting in the burning of Washington, D.C.
Southern Theater:
Andrew Jackson led American forces to victory in the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, showcasing strategic success in the Gulf Coast region.
The Canadian Front in 1812
Objective: Explain the military situation on the Canadian front in 1812.
The U.S. anticipated an uncomplicated invasion of Canada in 1812; however, the campaign ended unfavorably.
American forces were ill-coordinated and frequently commanded by inexperienced political appointees.
A notable failure was General William Hull’s surrender of Detroit, largely due to fear of Native American attacks; other invasions also met with insufficient success.
British forces, with the aid of Canadian militias and Native allies, mounted significant resistance, showcasing that the U.S. underestimated its adversaries.
The U.S. Navy’s Role
Objective: Describe the role of the U.S. Navy in the War of 1812.
Despite being smaller than the British Navy, the U.S. Navy performed admirably during the War of 1812.
American frigates, such as the USS Constitution, achieved notable victories in early single-ship engagements, raising morale.
Control of the Great Lakes proved essential; Oliver Hazard Perry’s victory at the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813 was marked by his declaration, "We have met the enemy and they are ours."
Thomas Macdonough later secured victory at Lake Champlain, helping defend the northern border and demonstrating naval successes amid a backdrop of military challenges.
Treaty of Ghent (1814)
Objective: Describe the results of the Treaty of Ghent.
The Treaty of Ghent, signed in December 1814, formally concluded the War of 1812.
No territory was gained by either side, and the treaty restored pre-war borders, marking a diplomatic status quo.
The U.S. relinquished demands regarding impressment, while Britain agreed to withdraw from American territories.
Although the treaty did not resolve all underlying issues, its conclusion incited a surge of nationalism in the U.S. and reinforced the critical role of a professional military, particularly the Navy, in protecting national interests.
War Policy in 1813
Objective: Explain U.S. war policy in 1813.
In 1813, U.S. war policy emphasized recovering from initial defeats and building military momentum.
The military prioritized control over the Great Lakes to enhance operational effectiveness against Canada.
American forces advanced into the Northwest, ultimately overcoming Tecumseh's Native confederacy.
Although Canadian invasions remained largely unsuccessful, gradual gains and naval victories bolstered confidence.
Toward war's progression, the government began improving supply lines and training systems, slowly professionalizing the Army amidst conflict.
British Offensives in 1814
Objective: Describe the British military offensives in 1814 and their results.
In 1814, following Napoleon’s defeat in Europe, Britain directed its full attention towards North America.
British troops invaded and burned Washington, D.C., destroying key buildings including the Capitol and the White House.
However, their attempt to seize Baltimore failed, with Fort McHenry successfully resisting and inspiring “The Star-Spangled Banner.”
Another British invasion down Lake Champlain was repelled at the Battle of Plattsburgh, where U.S. naval forces played a crucial role in defending against British advances, resulting in mixed military outcomes that motivated both sides to pursue peace.
Chapter 5 — Full Study Notes
Period: 1820s–1848
Themes: Institutional reform, early industrial technology, professionalization, and the Army/Navy’s roles in continental expansion and the war with Mexico.
Three Significant Developments Affecting Military Policy in the 1820s and 1830s
According to Millett, three interconnected changes occurred:
Institutional Reforms & Professionalization:
The Army and Navy evolved into more structured and stable bureaucratic entities.
The establishment of West Point facilitated the training of a new officer corps proficient in engineering, mathematics, and standardized tactics.
The expansion of staff bureaus (Ordnance, Quartermaster, Topographical Engineers) became pivotal in operations.
Industrial Technology:
New manufacturing methods (interchangeable parts, machining, steam power) started to influence weapons, logistics, and naval propulsion.
Gradual integration of machine technologies by the U.S. was observed.
Geographic & Strategic Expansion:
The surge of westward settlement extended military responsibilities deep into the frontier.
The U.S. Army became the main federal presence in the trans-Mississippi West, embroiling itself in Indian policy and reinforcing continental security.
Naval Developments in Post–War of 1812 America
According to Millett:
The Navy underwent slow modernization due to constrained congressional funding.
The “Old Navy” focused on:
Protecting merchant shipping.
Suppressing piracy and later, addressing anti-slavery patrols.
Demonstrating naval presence particularly in the Pacific region.
Ships experienced limited steam propulsion advancements while retaining a majority of sailing vessels.
Some paddle steamers were constructed, improved dry docks were created, and the Board of Navy Commissioners became a stronger administrative body.
Routine overseas deployments commenced on global “stations.”
American Defense Policy in the 1820s and 1830s
Defense policy relied on:
Fortifying coastal areas (the “Third System”) by constructing massive masonry forts designed by West Point engineers.
Maintaining a small standing Army viewed as sufficient for peacetime duties and frontier garrisons.
A Navy tasked with protecting distant commerce and countering piracy.
Heavy reliance on militia forces for major conflicts instead of expanding the Regular Army.
Strategies presumed a low likelihood of foreign invasions but acknowledged possible coastal bombardments or shipping interdictions.
Army’s Use of Industrial Revolution Technology
Millett highlights:
Key sites like Springfield Armory and Harper’s Ferry led to innovations in:
Interchangeable parts for enhanced manufacturing.
Precision machining techniques.
Mechanized gunstocking processes.
While these innovations improved muskets and rifles, their adoption was gradual.
Further expansion included:
Advanced topographical mapping instruments.
New artillery casting techniques.
Scientific surveying methodologies.
As a result, the U.S. military became a significant technological leader within the national context.
Navy’s Use of Industrial Revolution Technology
The Navy cautiously embraced steam propulsion consisting of:
Initial paddle steamers accepted, eventually transitioning to screw propellers during the late 1830s to 40s.
Enhancement of naval artillery, particularly with shell-firing technologies, significantly influenced maritime design processes.
Naval yards experienced upgrades with modern foundries and machine shops, though the shift from sail to steam was gradual due to several challenges:
High costs of new ships.
Weak coal supply networks.
Resistance among many officers to adopt newer technologies.
American Military Theory in the 1820s and 1830s
The military theory reflected a strong emphasis on engineering stemming from West Point's influence:
Studies on fortifications, transportation infrastructure, and internal improvements were prevalent among officers.
The scope of military theory stressed:
Building defensive coastal fortifications.
Maintaining a small professional Army to serve as a fast-expanding cadre during war.
Utilizing militia forces as the primary wartime fighting entity.
Avoiding large standing peacetime militaries.
While European military models, particularly Napoleonic strategies, influenced tactical education, U.S. military philosophy retained a conservative approach, emphasizing limited warfare.
American Military Culture after the War of 1812
The Army of this period was characterized by:
A small and isolated posture frequently stationed at frontier outposts.
Bureaucratic complexity and professionalism, with an engineer-oriented focus.
Officers perceived their role as scientific nation-builders through engineering advancements.
Social culture within the Army was insular, with noted discipline issues and frequent reports of alcoholism among enlisted personnel.
Persistent public suspicions remained about the dangers posed by large military forces.
Army’s Role in Westward Expansion
Millett emphasizes that the Army served as the crucial federal institution on the frontier responsible for:
Surveying lands and overseeing the construction of essential infrastructure including roads, bridges, and forts.
Escorting settlers while acting as Indian agents enforcing federal policies.
Facilitating commercial development by mapping out the West and ensuring safe passage.
Through its infrastructural projects, the Army administered removal policies, including prominent initiatives like the Trail of Tears.
Navy’s Role in International Relations, 1838–1861
The Navy broadened its role in global policing, which included:
Forming the Pacific Squadron, East India Squadron, and African Squadron focusing on anti-slavery patrols.
Taking on diplomatic roles such as enforcing treaties and establishing a naval presence in Japan (precursory to Commodore Perry's later expeditions).
Protecting expanding American whaling industries, Pacific trade routes, and commerce with China.
Army’s Role in Indian Relations in the 1830s
The Army enforced the Indian Removal Act of 1830, managing the relocation of tribes to the designated Indian Territory.
Conducted military campaigns in notable conflicts such as:
The Black Hawk War and the protracted Second Seminole War, which emerged as the longest and most costly conflict with Native Americans.
While seen as peacekeepers between tribes and settlers, the Army typically favored expansionist interests.
Polk’s Foreign Policy Problems in 1845
According to Millett, there were four primary concerns for President Polk:
The annexation of Texas raised tensions with Mexico.
Boundary disputes in Oregon with Britain exacerbated tensions.
An ambition to acquire California and New Mexico from Mexico.
Navigating these pressing issues without instigating a two-front war.
Zachary Taylor’s Southern Texas / North Mexico Campaign
Key moments of Taylor’s campaign included:
Advancing from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, establishing Fort Texas (later renamed Fort Brown).
Engaging in significant battles such as Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma in 1846, which pushed Mexican forces back.
Taylor’s forces then progressed into northern Mexico, where he captured Monterrey after intense urban combat.
Logistic challenges included supply shortages from lengthy travel distances and oppressive heat, issues emphasized by Millett.
Taylor’s successes solidified his national prominence as a military leader.
Groups of Americans Who Opposed the Mexican War
Millett identifies several groups that protested against the Mexican War:
Whigs, who opposed what they viewed as unjust wars of aggression aimed at the expansion of slave states.
Abolitionists, who opposed slavery's spread into new territories.
Certain New England merchants, who had concerns about potential disruptions to trade.
Anti-expansionist intellectuals and certain members of the clergy, alongside a minority of Democrats who expressed skepticism towards Polk’s motivations.
Polk’s Direction of the Mexican War
Millett notes that Polk exercised meticulous control over military strategy from Washington.
While Taylor was initially supported, Polk shifted his focus to Winfield Scott due to Taylor’s rising political popularity.
Polk's strategic objectives included:
Securing northern Mexico through Taylor’s advancements.
Delivering a decisive strike via an amphibious landing at Veracruz commanded by Scott.
Capturing Mexico City.
Polk simultaneously orchestrated diplomatic efforts while managing the acquisition of California and New Mexico, trying to limit Whig commanders' political ascendance.
Taylor’s Campaign for Monterrey
September 1846 marked Taylor’s military advances in Monterrey.
He initiated a divided assault of his forces, launching attacks from multiple directions.
Intense, urban house-to-house combat characterized the fighting; U.S. forces adapted tactics called "mouse-holing" through walls.
A negotiated cease-fire allowed for Mexican withdrawal, yet this irritated Polk as it stretched Taylor's resources thin despite providing a strategic base.
Battle of Buena Vista
In February 1847, the Battle of Buena Vista unfolded where Santa Anna confronted Taylor's smaller forces.
Taylor commanded approximately 5,000 troops, while Santa Anna led about 15,000.
Defensively positioned at La Angostura Pass, Taylor delayed Mexican forces.
The Mississippi Rifles, commanded by Jefferson Davis, were critical to maintaining American defensive lines.
Exhaustion, high casualties, and logistical difficulties compelled Santa Anna to withdraw, cementing Taylor’s status as a war hero.
Scott’s Campaign to Mexico City
Scott's campaign represented the first major amphibious landing in U.S. military history, showcasing operational excellence.
Sequence of Events:
Landing at Veracruz in March 1847 was executed flawlessly.
A siege led to Veracruz's surrender after intense bombardment.
Scott advanced inland, achieving victory at Cerro Gordo in April 1847.
The campaign involved significant battles such as those at Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec in September 1847.
Occupation of Mexico City occurred on September 14, 1847.
Millett highlights Scott’s focus on:
Logistical planning and preparation.
Maintaining discipline within ranks.
Displaying political sensitivity towards civilian populations while executing campaign requirements.
Utilizing a professional staff exemplified an effective military operation.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
Consequences of the war culminated in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo:
Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as the Texas border.
The U.S. gained substantial territories including:
California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and portions of Colorado/Wyoming.
The U.S. compensated Mexico $15 million and assumed responsibility for claims made by American citizens against Mexico.
This immense expansion reignited national tensions related to slavery's future in the newly-acquired territories.
Militarily, the war validated the effects of:
The trained officer corps from West Point.
Enhanced logistical operations to support expeditionary efforts.
The cooperation between the Army and Navy in strategic operations across the conflict.