Psych 100 Queens University (MIDTERM)

Fields Psychologists may work in

Communications, teaching, advertising, clinical psychology.

clinical psychologist

psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior

Business + Human resources individuals

Application of psychological factors to work such as motivation, leadership, productivity, marketing, healthy workplaces, and ergonomics.

HOW questions

Refer to the mechanism causing something to occur

WHY questions

Answered form a functional perspective (why do some animals have better hearing?)

Empiricism

View that we obtain knowledge through observable facts and sensory observations.
Believe behavior is measurable, the mind is not. Therefore reality doesn't always apply.

Shortcomings of empiricism

Relies on the ability to observe something through human senses. (Example, can't study brain impulses because you can't see it)

Rationalism

View we obtain knowledge through reason and logic. Enables the study of thought. Ex. Socrates asked "do perceptions equal reality" and we can logically conclude they do no b/c optical illusions.

Shortcomings of Rationalism

Not every question about human behavior can be answered through logic. Somethings aren't logical. Ex. grocery bags feel heavier if you hold them for longer

Structuralism

(Wundt) knowledge through reducing things we don't understand into elements. Putting things into elements can allows us to understand why we use them for things.(Ex. look at an apple, say its red, round, and tasty).

Functionalism

(William James) Knowledge through understanding the use of something or the use of a trait.

Connection between Psychology and Science

Scientists study through systematic observation and experiment. This is Empirical.

The results are used to make theories that predict new phenomena. The theories are biased off logic and reason. This is rationalism.

The Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to seek explanations for things that have been observed; including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

Psychology

The study of behavior and mental processes (emotions, perceptions, and memory)

Behaviors

Any action that can be observed, recorded and measured.

What did Helmholtz and Fechner do?

Contributed to the beginning of psycho-physics.

Verifiability

Something that can be replicated, and therefore it can be checked to see if the results are consistent.

Reliability

Every time the study is done the same result is yielded, therefore it is reliable.

Objectivity

The ability to view something without bias or being influenced by personal feelings.

operational definition

Definition made at the beginning of a study to define the variables within so that everyone doing the study will have the same understanding. (ex. Define aggression in the context of a study.)

independant vs dependant variables

Independent Variable: Used to explain the dependent variable. The variable being manipulated.

Dependent Variable: The variable being tested and measure in the experiment, Changes as the Independent variable changes.

Correlation Study

Takes observations and finds correlations between two variables (NOT CAUSATION)

Experiment

Allows researchers to infer a relationship between variables. Shows causation.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (ex. affected by over expectancy effect)

Reliability

A test is not influenced by emotions or personal views. Results should be stable across time and emotions.

Subject expectancy effect

The subject knows what is being studied and expects a certain outcome, so they change their behaviors

Over expectancy effect

Research knows which group each participant is in. Acts different around different participants, letting it slip which groups they're actually in and influencing their behavior.

Demand Artifact

When participants in a study notice a change (its too obvious) and change their behavior. No natural behavior is observed. (CONFOUND)

Random Assignment

Each individual is equally likely to be put in any group. Totally random treatment assignment

Double Blind Study

Neither experimenter nor participant knows which group they've been assigned to.

Confounds

A factor in an experiment that is not controlled and could influence the dependent variable in a way that affects the study

Descriptive Statistics

statistics that summarize the data collected in a study quantitatively. (Mean, median, graphs, etc.) Based on the sample.

Inferential Statistics

Used to say something about the data, to draw conclusions. (based on statistical population)

DNA

Holder of genetic information nucleus. Make up a chromosome.

Chromosomes

Come in pairs (one from each parent), made up of DNA in a thread like structure. Humans have 23, 22 autosomes and 1 set of X Y chromosome pairs (XX=Female, XY= Male)

Genes

Regions of a chromosomes that encode for a particular protein. These proteins preform functions (can be physical appearance, mental ability, etc.).

Locus

The point where the gene is located. The locus in each chromosome of a pair may not be the same

Allele

Two genes at a given locus. One from mom and one from dad.

Homozygous Allele

The two genes are the same

Heterozygous

The two genes are different

Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles

-A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present
-A recessive allele is only expresses if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present)

Monozygotic twins

Identical twins. Made up of the same genetic material BUT may express different genes

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins. No more genetically similar then other types of siblings.

Genotype VS phenotype

Genotype: An organisms genetic make-up (the two alleles)
Phenotype: How the trait is expressed (ie. blue eyes)

Importance of twin studies

Twins are very important to study. Find which things rely more on environment or genetics by comparing similarities in GZ and MZ twins. (more similar in MZ=genetics, More similar in GZ=environment)

polygenic inheritance

Inheritance of a trait through multiple pairs of genes

Epigenetics

The study of heritable changes that occur without a change in the DNA sequence (AKA a mutation).
-Stress, diet, behavior etc can cause chemical switches and change a group of cells.

Behavior Genetics

Specialize in the relationship between genetics and behavior. Mostly studied in families.

Heritability

The degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors. Has many misconceptions.
-Measure pop. NOT individuals
-Results depend on the pop. studied

Shared Environment

Aspects of the environment shared by all family members. EX household socioeconomic status

Nonshared Environment

Aspects of the environment shared by all family members. EX parental treatment of siblings, different teachers

Adaptations

Occur through "survival of the fittest". Genes that code for characteristics related to survival and reproductive success are passed on. Has a lot of misconceptions

Naturalistic Fallacy (MISCONCEPTION)

People believe that what is produced by evolution is either natural and good or unnatural and bad. ITS NEITHER

Genetic Deterministic Fallacy (MISCONCEPTION)

Belief that genes determine behavior independently of environmental influences. WRONG. Environment affects things.

intrasexual selection

selection within the same sex, individuals of one sex compete directly for mates of the opposite sex

intersexual selection

Selection whereby individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex. (look for desirable traits)

Explain the adaptive functions of:
Romantic relationships

allow mating to occur which allows traits to be passed on. also provide resources for each other

Explain the adaptive functions of:
Kin relationships

older family members provide for younger ones, so that their bloodline can survive and be passed on.

Explain the adaptive functions of:
Friendships

can provide support and protection. reciprocal alturism

Explain the adaptive functions of:
Dominance Hierarchies

Have to fight to be at the top. those at the top get first pick of food, resources and mates. Their bloodline is more likely to be passed on. This means the species will get stronger

parental investment theory

a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior, including the extensive investment parents make in their offspring.
-women have to put a lot of effort into offspring
-men can have as many as they want

inclusive fitness

the reproductive success of those who share common genes and their influence upon the reproductive rate of relatives.
ex. A mom cat who eats her babies has a lower inclusive fitness
A mom cat who sacrifices herself for her babies increases her inclusive fitness

altruism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others.
(1 self is worth a large amount of relative b/c then your genes live on.)
Can increase inclusive fitness

Reciprocal Altruism

Wjen people behave altruidtically towards one another because they believe the act will be reciprocated towards either them or their kin. (FRIENDSHIP)

Operational definition of Learning

More or less permenant change in behaviour or behavioural potential that results from experience

Classical Conditioning

form of Learning in which the individual learns an association between 2 stimuli

UCS

Stimulus that evokes a response prior to any conditioning/learning

UCR

Reflexive response to the presentation of the UCS (ex dogs salivating)

CS

A neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to now evoke a response (ex. the bell)

CR

A response that's similar (not always the same) to the UCR that is now evoked by the CS. (ex. dog salivate when bell is rung)

Generalization

The CS used doesn't have to be the same as long as it's similar, it'll still evoke the CR. However the closer to the CS the better. (ex. different whistle tones)

Discrimination

Training a subject to respond selectively to only certain stimuli, not the ones that are similar.
Ex. give dog food after one whistle tone, but not after the lower or higher whistle tone.

Habitation

Diminished response to a stimulus after repeated exposure (slow process).
ex. You live by a train. at first it wakes u up, then it after time it doesn't

Contiguity

A continuous series of frequent pairings of stimulus, without the addition of an award.

Contingency

The degree of which a CS can predict the occurrence of the UCS
ex High contingency would mean the CS and UCS are done together every time.
Low contingency would mean the CS and UCS aren't always paired

Operant Conditioning

Learning from experience. If an action produces a good result you repeat it, if it produces a bad one you do not.

Operant Response

a behavior that is modifiable by its consequences

+ reinforcement

Something presented after a behaviour that Increases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring

- reinforcement

Something that when removed increases the likelihood of behaviour reoccurring.
(ex remove a shock)

+ punishment

Something that when presented following a behaviour, decreases the likelihood of it being repeated

- punishment

Something that when removed following a behaviour decreases the likelihood of it being repeated
ex. taking away child's toys

Shaping

Reinforcement of behaviour that are closer and closer to the desired response until the response is fully acquired

Chaining

Reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response.
(can be linked to shaping. could also be like teaching a chicken to play piano)

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to discriminate between situations that the operant response could occur in.
ex- teach a rat to hit a button during jazz music but not rock music.

Conditioned Taste Adversion

Type of Learning in which a substance is avoided because it's flavour is associated with illness (puking).

preparedness

evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value

latent learning (implicit learning)

When something is learned but does not manifest as a behaviour till later.
ex. Rats wander around maze. suddenly good food is at one end, and b/c the rats learned the maze they get there very quickly

Spatial Learning

Indistinctive Drift

When an organism "drifts" towards an instinctive behaviour instead of learning a new one

Insight Learning

Learning or problem solving that happens all of a sudden through understanding the relationship of various parts of a problem

Observational Learning

Learning through seeing the kinds of consequences others experience as a result of their behaviours. Decide whether or not to copy them.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Set #)

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (Set amount of time)

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (Unpredicable # of responses)

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (Random amount of time)

central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord. Receives sensory messages from the PNS, delivers motor and sensory commands to the body

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Includes nerves from the spinal cord and sensory organs of the head, which transmit sensory info from the body TO the CNS. Also transmits sensory and motor commands from the CNS to the body.

Skeletal Portion of PNS

Controls muscles (ex. leg muscles), relaying motor commands from the brain. Involve you DECIDING to do something (ex. kick)

Autonomic Portion of PNS

Controls involuntary muscles (heart, breathing, internal organs, etc). Has two sections.

sympathetic vs parasympathetic

-Body's response to a perceived threat (fight or flight)
VS
- Controls homeostasis and the body at rest (rest and digest function)