SOCL 3510 Final Stevenson

workplace violence type II: customer/client

- offender is a customer or client and attacks victim

- ex. mental health facility; prison

- accounts for about 3-4% of workplace homicides

workplace violence type I: criminal intent

- theft/robbery is primary motive- many involve weapons- accounts for about 82% of workplace homicides

how common is lethal workplace violence?

- about 500-1000 a year- number has declined- homicide accounts for 0.1% of workplace violence- about 10% of workplace fatalities are homicides- in terms of workplace fatalities, homicide is 3rd most frequent• highway accidents, falls, homicide

what is the definition of workplace violence?

- violent acts, including physical assaults and threats of assault, directed toward persons at work or on duty- can be lethal or nonlethal

workplace violence type III: worker on worker

- involves former or present employee attacks

- accounts for about 8% of workplace homicides

workplace violence type IV: personal relationship

- domestic violence related

- accounts for about 5-6% of workplace homicides

are men or women more likely to be victims of lethal workplace violence?

- 80% of victims are male

- in terms of proportions:

• male workplace deaths due to homicide: 10-30%

• female workplace deaths due to homicide: 40-57%

- why the difference?

• risks associated w/ "male" jobs vs. "female" jobs

• doesn't mean women are more likely to be murdered at work

what are the racial differences of lethal workplace violence?

about 1/2 of workplace homicide victims are white, but whites make up more than half of the US population so this may be inaccurate

what are the top two causes of death during lethal workplace violence?

1. shooting (80%)

2. stabbing (10%)

what are the most important risk factors in lethal workplace violence?

1. industries - retail and services

2. occupations - taxi drivers and chauffeurs; police and private security

3. other factors - open late at night, presence of cash, working alone, interacting w/ offenders

how does nonlethal compare to lethal workplace violence?

1. much more common - somewhere between 500,000-1,000,000 people are victims each year

2. as w/ other forms of violence, rates have declined

who are the victims of nonlethal workplace violence?

- whites are typically > 80% of victims

- males are typically > 65% of victims

who are the offenders of nonlethal workplace violence?

- about 55% of offenders are strangers

- 85% are lone offenders

- about 40% of offenders are casual acquaintances (more for female victims)

are weapons used in nonlethal workplace violence? is there injury?

- no weapon present about 73% of the time

- only about 12% involve injury

- only about 1% involve a serious injury

do people report nonlethal workplace violence?

- not usually; less than 1/2 of violent workplace victimizations get reported to police

- why?

• not likely to involve injury or weapon

• might involve someone they know

• fear of retaliation or of being fired

what are the highest risk occupations for nonlethal workplace violence?

1. law enforcement

2. mental health

3. teaching (distant 3rd)

how is workplace violence harmful to the victim?

1. medical expenses

2. psychological stress

3. substance use/abuse

4. fear

how is workplace violence harmful to the employer?

1. loss of property or property damage

2. increased cost of insurance

3. absenteeism/reduced productivity

4. staff turnover

5. cost of prevention efforts

what are some explanations for workplace violence?

1. routine activities theory: motivated offenders, attractive targets, lack of guardianship

2. rational choice: using victims to get a desired outcome

can workplace violence be prevented?

- depends on what you want to prevent

- type I and II: environmental design, screening, policies, employee training, etc.

- type III: look for warning signs

- type IV: good luck

how common is violent victimization at school?

- typically 13-34 homicides at school per year (includes going to and from school)

- 31 violent deaths in 2010-11 school year

- less than 1-2% of all youth homicides occur at school

- very rare

according to NCVS, how common is total victimization of students?

- in 2011, about 4% of students 12-18 during previous 6 months

- only about 1% for violent victimization

- <1% for serious victimization (rape)

- 3% victimized by theft

are students more likely to be victimized at school or away from school?

- a greater # of students aged 12-18 experienced TOTAL victimizations at school than away from school

- this is b/c they have more opportunity to be victims of theft and simple assault at school

- rates: 49 per 1000 students at school; 38 per 1,000 students away from school

who is more likely to be a victim of school violence?

- males

- blacks and Hispanics

- urban school students

has school violence increased or decreased in the past 10 years?

like the national trend, school-based violent victimization has declined since the 1990s

when is school violence more likely to occur?

- school days more likely (kids interact w/ other kids)

- during transition times

• 1st peak: 7-8am (getting to school)

• 2nd peak: 12pm (lunchtime)

•3rd peak: 3pm most likely (right after school)

- easiest to attack when there are a bunch of other kids around and less supervision

what kinds of offenses are students most likely to experience?

1. bullying: about 28% reported being bulled at some point during the school year

• about 9% reported being cyberbullied

how common is teacher victimization?

- about 7% of teachers threatened, about 4% attacked in 2007 (mostly simple assault)

- males 2x as likely

- senior high >2x as likely

- urban 2x as likely as suburban and rural

why is school violence a problem?

- fear of victimization

- weapons carrying

- compromised performance

- hard to retain quality teachers

- militarization of learning environment

are there any effective strategies for reducing or preventing school violence?

1. have to define what you are trying to do (reduce violence or get ahead of it)

2. school seems like a key location

what are the characteristics of at-school fatal violence?

- most occur during transition times (immediately before and after school and during lunch)

- more likely to occur at the start of each semester

- nearly 50% gave some type of warning signal, such as making a threat or leaving a note, prior to the event

- firearms used came primarily from perpetrator's home or from friends or relatives

are children more likely to be killed at school or away from school?

98% of violent deaths occur away from school

what is the prevalence of school violence on college campuses?

- average of 16 murders per year

- less than 1% of total homicides in US

- usually personal murders, not mass murders

- areas surrounding campus are more dangerous

do college students have higher rates of violent victimization than their non-college peers?

no, they have lower levels of victimization, excluding sexual assault

what is the nature of college student victimization?

- at night and away from campus

- at bars, interacting w/ other young people

- simple assault, no weapons

what explains school violence?

1. school level theories (school climate):

- smaller size and more personal atmosphere

- discipline systematic

- high relevance of schooling

- student input and participation

- reward structures

- clear teacher-administrative cooperation

- participation of parents and adults in school

2. community level theories

- can be multilevel

- assume students are from local community

- school climate more important

has gun ownership in the US increased since the 1970s?

- as of late 1990s, estimated to be ~258 million firearms in the US

- around 43% of households have firearms (may have declined)

- percent of persons who own guns is considerably less, but many own multiple guns

how often are guns used in violent crime?

1. 2005 SHR: out of 16,688 homicides, 51% involved a firearm (may be as much as 2/3)

2. 2004 NCVS: ~281,000 violent victimizations involved an offender w/ a gun

• accounts for about 6%

• captures a lot more crimes that aren't reported

3. UCR/FBI: about 26% of violent crimes involved firearms

how many deaths involve firearms (2011)?

- more than 1/2 of suicides

- at least 2/3 of homicides

- both the # and rate of homicides involving firearms have declined

how often are guns used defensively?

- high estimates are that there are more than 2.5 million defensive gun uses a year in the US, but this finding has never been replicated

- doesn't mean that people don't use it for defense, but it's nearly impossible to tell how much

how often do guns cause injuries?

- for every 1 homicide, there are 5.7 nonfatal gunshot injuries

- presence of a gun may actually reduce the likelihood that an offender attacks the victim

- guns are associated w/ more severe injury

where and how do criminals get their guns?

- where: family or friends (most likely), illegal gun markets, retail outlets

- how: cash (most likely), theft

- about 1/3 of all new guns will be used in a crime at some point

why do people own guns?

- most gun owners reporting the leading motivation is recreational

- however, nearly 3/4 of handgun owners said self-protection was the primary reason

how does the US rate of firearm-related deaths compare to other countries?

- US has highest rate of firearm-related deaths among high-income countries

- among youth 15-24, firearm homicide rates were 35.7x higher than in other countries

- increased risk of homicide and suicide when guns are stored in the home

are guns typically used in crimes?

- 3/4 of incarcerated felons who committed a gun crime said they had no intent to use it

- when they did, it was:

• to scare victim

• for protection

• to kill victim

- guns are used to expedite crime

what is the typical definition of a street gang?

- any durable, street-oriented youth group whose involvement in illegal activity is part of its group activity

- no consensus on the meaning of the term gang (gang member vs. gang motive)

what are some common measures used to identify gang members?

1. crimes committed

2. self-nomination

3. display of tattoos, colors, or other symbols

why do people join gangs?

1. push factor (for protection)

2. pull factors

• to make money, get drugs, have excitement

• increase status in neighborhood

• cultural pride and identification w/ one's neighborhood

what is the prevalence and distribution of gangs (2007)?

- just under 800,000 gang members

- most prevalent in large cities (86%), but gangs are found everywhere, even in rural counties

- most growth in rural counties and smaller cities from 2002-2007, but they are still the lowest prevalence

what are the demographics of gangs?

- age: 65% over 18 (consistently increasing)

- gender: over 90% are males

- race/ethnicity: Hispanic/Latino gangs most frequent, followed by African-American; white gangs fewest in number

what are some changes that we've seen in gang membership?

- length of gang membership is not long (between 9% and 21% remain for 3+ years)

- members seem to be getting older than in the past, although hard to gauge (2/3 of members 18+ by 2011)

- males predominant, but females definitely more involved than in the past (may be as much as 1/4 to 1/3 of members; not sex objects)

how are gangs structured?

- depends, most are not very structured

- one example, by level of involvement:

• leadership

• hardcore members

• associates

• fringe members

• wannabes

• cliques

what are the different gang types?

1. traditional gang

2. neotraditional gang

3. compressed gang

4. collective gang

5. specialty gang

according to NCVS, what is the prevalence of gang violence?

about 6% of all violent crimes

how many homicides are gang-related?

1. SHR: between 1993-1996 - 5-7%

2. NYGS: between 2007-2011 - 1,900 (about 12% annually)

how is gang violence a self-perpetuating cycle?

1. as perceived threat gets larger, competition between gangs fuels violence

2. this violence may be preemptive or retaliatory

3. other non-gang members become more aware of gangs, increasing their fear

4. gangs become marginalized; social institutions are watching them; they are seen as THE problem in the neighborhood

5. members become fatalistic and accept violence as part of life

are gang members more violent than your average person?

- yes, they are more criminally involved

- however, it's hard to determine that gang membership per se causes more involvement in violence

- selection effect: maybe people that like to fight, sell drugs, etc. just want to join gangs b/c they're already good at it

- gang membership is a strong indicator of individual violence in adolescence

- a great deal of gang time and activity does not involve violence

which communities are more at risk for gang violence?

size of place and access to major highways increases risk

what are the characteristics of rural youth gangs?

1. more heterogenous, smaller, less structured, more transitory, younger, and generally less violent

2. the smaller pool of people to draw from and their younger age structure make them much less stable

3. tend to be homegrown rather than imported from outside

4. what appears to be diffused from urban areas is the gang culture more than gangsters themselves per se

• can be done through media, but more effective through interpersonal networks

should guns be allowed on campus?

- rationale for legalizing gun possession on campus is to give people the chance to defend themselves if there is an emergency

- however, police may shoot the person who is defending with a gun, not the perpetrator

- more guns are not the answer

what explains gang violence?

1. Merton's strain theory

2. Cohen's status frustration

3. Miller's focal concerns theory

4. Wolfgang and Ferracuti's subculture of violence theory

Merton's strain theory

focuses on inability to achieve positively held goals (wealth) through legitimate means (education and good jobs)

Cohen's status frustration

• lower-class rejection of middle-class values

• delinquent activities provide lower-class youth way to achieve status

Miller's focal concerns theory

• focal concerns are cultural values that coincidentally conflicted w/ middle-class beliefs (not a rejection of middle-class values as w/ Cohen)

• examples of lower-class focal concerns: trouble, toughness, street smarts, excitement, luck, and autonomy

Wolfgang and Ferracuti's subculture of violence theory

lower-class youth use violence as a method of solving interpersonal problems

what is operation ceasefire?

• Boston PD started program to reduce gang violence

• focused on small # of serially offending, gang-involved youth

• emphasis was on gun trafficking within the state

• "lever pulling" meant that any violent event would set off a coordinate response by police and social services

what are the three types of drug-related violence?

1. pharmacological

2. economic

3. systemic

what is the pharmacological type of drug-related violence?

• physiological effects that drugs have on the body

• violent-producing effects are strongest among heavy, chronic users

• determining a causal relationship is hard

is alcohol linked to violence?

• most consistently linked to aggressive behavior

• causes both immediate and long-term effects on brain functioning

• immediate intoxication can lower inhibitions and communication abilities, thus increasing the risk of violence

• effects vary across users

• selective disinhibition: social norms that normally limit violence are temporarily suspended or neutralized

are other drugs linked to violence?

• heroin: not typically violent unless during withdrawal or attempt to obtain drugs

• meth: chronic abuse can lead to psychosis and paranoia, and occasionally violent behavior

• cocaine: in crack form, chronic abuse can be related to paranoia and aggression

what is the economically compulsive type of drug-related violence?

• refers to crimes committed to obtain drugs or money for purchasing drugs

• usually property crimes

what is the systemic type of drug-related violence?

• violence related to the illegal sale and distribution of drugs (and the things that come along w/ illegal drug markets) but also areas w/ high concentration of alcohol outlets

• routine activities theory and hot spots (ATMs, bus stations, bars, etc.)

• open air drug markets

what are the three major factors that interact to explain drugs' effects on behavior?

1. set: mental or emotional state of user

2. setting: social and physical environment in which use takes place

3. pharmacological effects: physiological effects of the drug(s)