CH 2

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Confounding Variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Correlational Study

a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other

Correlational Coefficient

a descriptive statistic that indicates the strength of the relationship between two variables

Cross-Sectional Design

research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Descriptive Research

marketing research to better describe marketing problems, situations, or markets, such as the market potential for a product or the demographics and attitudes of consumers

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

double-blind study

An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Experimental Study

the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Institutional Review Board

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

longitudinal design

research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Negative Correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

Posotive correlation

The IV and DV move together in the SAME direction along the X and Y axes.

p-value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance).

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Random Sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

representative sample

randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects

Sample

a subset of the population

single-blind study

study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

stratified sampling

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

third variable problem

A problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest.

z-score

a measure of how many standard deviations you are away from the norm (average or mean)

coercion

use of force to get someone to obey

cohort effect

effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

discrete data

Data with space between possible data values. Graphs are represented by dots.

frequency distribution

an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

methodology

a system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Philip Zimbardo

1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Studies: Stanford Prison Study-studied power of social roles to influence people's behavior