AP Psych FRQ Terms

Operational Definition

clear, specific explanation of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study to ensure consistency and replicability of results

Experiment

scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact; involves controlled conditions and systematic observation

Correlation

measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables; ranges from -1 to 1, with 0 indicating no correlation

Dependent variable

variable in an experiment that is measured and affected by the independent variable; its value depends on changes in the independent variable

Statistical significance

result that is unlikely to have occurred by chance, indicating a true relationship or effect in a study

Random assignment

research method where participants have an equal chance of being assigned to different experimental groups, helping to control for confounding variables

APA Ethical Guidelines for Experiments

standards set by the American Psychological Association to ensure research involving human participants is conducted ethically and with respect for participants' rights and well-being; beneficence & nonmaleficence, fidelity & responsibility, integrity, justice, and respect for people's rights & dignity.

Double-Blind Study

research method where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the control or experimental group, reducing bias and increasing reliability

Illusory correlation

cognitive bias where people perceive a relationship between two variables that does not actually exist or is weaker than believed

Mean

statistical measure of central tendency calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values; often used to represent the average

Median

middle value in a set when numbers are arranged in order; it divides the data into two equal parts

Descriptive statistics

involves methods to summarize and describe data, such as measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (range, variance, standard deviation)

Inferential statistics

inferential statistics involves making inferences or predictions about a population based on data collected from a sample; helps generalize findings beyond the specific sample analyzed.

Single-blind study

research design where participants are unaware of the treatment they receive, reducing bias

Random selection

method where each member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen for a sample, ensuring unbiased representation

Survey

method of collecting data from a population to gain insights or opinions on a particular topic; It involves asking questions to a sample of individuals

Case study

in-depth analysis of a person, group, event, or situation to understand its complexities, challenges, and outcomes for research or educational purposes

Naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without interference or manipulation by the researcher

Hypothesis

testable explanation or prediction based on observations and research that guides scientific investigations

Independent variable

factor manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable; controlled by the experimenter to test the hypothesis

Social facilitation

the tendency for people to perform better on tasks when in the presence of others; enhances performance on simple or well-rehearsed tasks

Self-fulfilling prophecy

belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true

Social loafing

tendency for individuals to exert less effort in a group setting compared to when working alone, leading to decreased productivity and motivation

Normative social influence

tendency to conform in order to fit in and be accepted by others, often driven by a desire to avoid rejection or gain approval

Deindividuation

psychological concept where individuals lose self-awareness in a group, leading to reduced inhibitions and increased impulsive behavior

Stereotype threat

fear of conforming to negative stereotypes about one's social group, impacting performance in that area

Cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes; people seek to reduce this discomfort through attitude change or rationalization

Groupthink

a psychological phenomenon where a group prioritizes harmony and conformity over critical thinking, leading to flawed decision-making and lack of creativity

Group polarization

the phenomenon where individuals in a group tend to make more extreme decisions or take more extreme actions compared to when they are alone

Foot-in-the-Door

technique where a small request is made first, increasing the likelihood of compliance with a larger request later on

Framing

a cognitive bias where people react to a choice differently depending on how it is presented; manipulates way of thinking and affects bias

Peripheral route to persuasion

method of persuasion that relies on superficial factors like attractiveness or credibility of the source, rather than the actual content of the message

Dispositional attribution

tendency to attribute someone's behavior to their internal characteristics, such as personality traits, rather than external factors

Reciprocity norm

social expectation that individuals should help those who have helped them in the past; promotes mutual exchange and cooperation

Aggression

behavior intended to cause harm or pain to others, either physically or verbally, often driven by anger or hostility

Self-serving bias

tendency to attribute positive outcomes to our own abilities and efforts, while blaming negative outcomes on external factors beyond our control

Informational social influence

individuals conform to a group's behavior because they believe the group is correct; involves seeking information or guidance from others to make decisions

Central route to persuasion

method of influencing attitudes through logic, reason, and critical thinking rather than emotions or superficial characteristics

Compliance

conforming to a request or demand, often due to social pressure or authority influence, without necessarily changing one's beliefs or attitudes

Conformity

tendency to adjust one's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to align with group norms or expectations, often to fit in or be accepted

Prefrontal cortex

part of the brain involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and self-control; plays a key role in executive functions and is located in the frontal lobe

Sympathetic nervous system

part of autonomic nervous system; activates fight-or-flight response: increases heart rate, dilates pupils, and inhibits digestion

Adrenal glands

endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys, responsible for producing hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, crucial for the body's stress response and metabolism

Evolutionary psychology

studies how human behaviors and mental processes have evolved to adapt to environmental challenges over time

Cerebellum

part of the brain responsible for coordination, balance, and muscle control; located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter that plays a key role in muscle movement, memory, and learning processes in the brain

Long term potentiation

a persistent increase in synaptic strength, enhancing communication between neurons, often associated with memory formation

Dopamine & the reward center

neurotransmitter involved in pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement; plays a key role in the brain's reward system

Somatosensory cortex

area of the brain responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain; located in the parietal lobe

Motor neuron

neuron that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands, controlling movement or secretion

Serotonin

neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness, regulating mood, appetite, and sleep

Motor cortex

area of the brain responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements; located in the frontal lobe, it plays a key role in motor skills.

Broca’s area

region in the brain's frontal lobe responsible for speech production and language processing

Myelin sheath

fatty substance that surrounds nerve cells, speeding up the transmission of electrical signals along the axon

Occipital lobe

part of the brain responsible for processing visual information; located at the back of the brain

Retinal disparity

slight difference in the images seen by each eye, which the brain uses to perceive depth and distance

Difference threshold

minimum amount of change in a stimulus that can be detected by an individual; also known as the just noticeable difference (JND)

Selective attention

the ability to focus on specific stimuli while filtering out other distractions in the environment

Sensory adaptation

the process by which sensory receptors become less responsive to constant stimuli, allowing the body to focus on detecting changes in the environment

Color blindness

an individual has difficulty distinguishing between certain colors; i is typically an inherited genetic trait that affects the perception of red and green colors

Absolute threshold

minimum stimulus intensity needed for detection 50% of the time

Basilar membrane

thin, delicate membrane within the cochlea of the inner ear that plays a crucial role in translating sound vibrations into neural signals for the brain to interpret

Inattentional blindness

failing to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is focused elsewhere; highlights the limits of our attentional capacity

Rods

photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions; they detect light and dark but do not perceive color

Proximity

state of being near or close to something or someone in terms of space or time; also refers to the relationship or connection between two or more things

Fovea

small depression in the retina where visual acuity is highest due to a high concentration of cones; essential for detailed vision

Feature detectors

neurons in the brain that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as edges, shapes, or motion

Closure

psychological process of accepting the end of a relationship or situation, allowing individuals to move forward and find peace

Cocktail party effect

ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy environment while filtering out other distractions

Figure ground

principle in design where the relationship between positive (figure) and negative (ground) space is emphasized to create visual interest

Circadian rhythm

biological process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours, influenced by light and darkness cues

REM sleep

a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, dreaming, and muscle paralysis, essential for cognitive function and memory consolidation

Modeling

process of creating a simplified representation of a complex system to analyze, understand, or predict its behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement

patterns that determine when a behavior is reinforced; fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval schedules

Positive reinforcment

technique involving the addition of a reward or incentive to encourage and strengthen desired behaviors

Negative reinforcement

removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a desired behavior; strengthens behavior by taking away something undesirable

Observational Learning

learning by watching others and imitating their behavior; involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

Conditioned response

a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus, acquired through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov

Pavlov's experiment demonstrated classical conditioning with dogs, pairing a bell with food to elicit a conditioned response

Secondary response

secondary response is a rapid and heightened immune response to a previously encountered antigen due to memory cells from the primary response

Operant conditioning

behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences; involves reinforcement (increases behavior) and punishment (decreases behavior)

Reinforcement

a process in which a behavior is strengthened by the presentation of a positive consequence or the removal of a negative consequence

Availability Heuristic

mental shortcut where people rely on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a topic or making a decision, rather than considering all relevant information

Distributed Practice

learning strategy that involves spacing out study sessions over time to enhance long-term retention and understanding

Retroactive interference

occurs when new information disrupts the recall of previously learned information

Proactive interference

occurs when old memories disrupt the ability to remember new information; happens when past learning interferes with new learning

Confirmation bias

tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses

Procedural memory

long-term memory responsible for knowing how to perform tasks, skills, and procedures without conscious awareness

Prospective memory

the ability to remember to perform an intended action in the future

Encoding failure

failure to store information in memory due to insufficient encoding during the learning process

State-dependent memory

memory retrieval is enhanced when an individual's internal state during encoding matches their state during retrieval

Convergent thinking

cognitive process focusing on finding a single, correct answer to a problem. It involves logical reasoning and deductive skills

Implicit memory

non-conscious retention of information that can affect thoughts and behaviors without intentional recollection; formed through experiences and exposure

Nondeclarative memory

unconscious memory for skills and habits, like riding a bike or tying shoelaces, acquired through repetition and practice

Heuristic

mental shortcut or rule of thumb used in problem-solving, decision-making, or judgment, often based on past experiences or intuition

Mnemonic

technique to aid memory recall, like acronyms or rhymes

Algorithm

step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or completing a task, typically used in computer science and mathematics to automate processes

Source amnesia

forgetting where or how you learned something, but still remembering the information itself

Source misattribution

source misattribution is misremembering the source of a memory, attributing it to the wrong source or creating a false memory

Phoneme

smallest distinctive sound unit in language that can change meaning