Psychology - Issues + Debates

AQA A-level Issues and Debates

universality

any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all despite differences of experience and upbringing

bias

when the conclusions and assumptions drawn do not apply equally across cultures and genders

beta bias

research that focuses on similarities between men and women, and therefore tends to present a view that either ignores or minimises the differences

e.g. male only samples being used for research and applying the results to all E.G. Milgram, Asch

specific example of beta bias

TAYLOR -found females tend to produce an adaptive tend-and-befriend response at times of stress because it ensures the survival of the offspring yet fight-flight response was generalised to women anyway despite only being researched with male animals

endrocentrism

male-centred as normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard (female behaviour judged to be abnormal)

specific example of androcentrism

KOHLBERG → research only used male samples and the dilemmas were concerned with justice rather than being concerned with hurting someone else

when he tested women he found they were morally inferior but still applied them to the male norm

alpha bias

research that focuses on differences between men and women, and therefore presents a view that exaggerates these differences

can under-emphasise the role of social and external factors by assuming that biological differences between males and females are the main causes of differences

specific example of alpha bias

FREUD → highlights both women and men go through different developmental processes e.g. Oedipus complex for boys due to castration anxiety vs Electra complex and penis envy for women

LIMITATIONS of gender bias (x4)

1. ‘lose-lose’ situation as equal = beta bias = misrepresented, differences = alpha bias = one gender devalued so solution may be recognising difference but not the superiority

2. gender bias may lead us to believe all males are the same and that they are all different to female (ignoring individual differences)

3. may have negative consequences if provides ‘scientific justification’ for negative stereotypes e.g. object to diagnostic category of PMS as trivialises females

4. research methodology can affect each gender differently e.g. lab experiments = favours males as women found inferior in leadership roles

ethnocentric bias

the belief that our own culture is superior

examples of ethnocentric bias (x4)

1. Ainsworth → American culture + led to a misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other countries e.g. Japan - never separated + Germany - encourage independence

2. DSM-5 → e.g. hallucinations a key characteristic of SZ yet in some cultures they are seen as a sign of power (Africans = during grief)

3. deviation from ideal mental health → self-actualisation is relevant in individualistic cultures

4. Asch e.g. Perrin + Spencer = UK students and 0.25% conformity OR 51% conformity in Zimbabwe and 14% in Belgium

cultural relativism

the view that there is no global ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ and instead it is important to consider the behaviour of the individual within their culture before making a judgement (context is vital)

example of cultural relativism

statistical infrequency = some behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically frequent in another

STRENGTHS of cultural bias (x2)

1. researchers are able to ravel so have a better understanding of other cultures (can exchange ideas etc.)

2. can be dealt with easily by using samples from different cultural groups e.g. SMITH + BOND = 66% of studies in a European textbook were American in 1988 but this has changed

LIMITATIONS of cultural bias (x3)

1. some behaviours are universal e.g. basic facial expressions + interactional synchrony and imitation so a full understanding of behaviour requires study of both universal and variations in behaviour

2. negative consequence of offering ‘scientific credability’ to stereotypes e.g. bias intelligence testing = US army IQ test showed African-Americans were lower than Europeans who were lower than white Americans

3. increased interconnectedness and globalisation means ‘individualstic’ and ‘collectivist’ are too simplistic

determinism

the view that an individuals behaviour is shaped by or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individuals will to do something

hard determinism

suggests that all human behaviour has a cause and so it is all out of our control (should be possible to identify the cause)

biological determinism

emphasis on an individuals biology (inc. genes, neurotransmitters etc.) being the cause of behaviour and physical characteristics

examples of biological determinism (x3)

1. genes responsible for aggression E.G. MAOA, CHD13

2. excess dopamine levels may cause hallucinations and delusions in SZ

3. localisation of behaviour = if an area is damaged, there could be an effect on behaviour which is not out of our control (e.g. Broca’s area)

environmental determinism

all behaviour is the result of conditioning (behaviourist approach) as our experience of choice is simply the sum total of reinforcements that have acted upon us throughout life

examples of environmental determinism (x2)

1. phobias explained by two process model

2. theory of differential association = learn criminality through the environment and people around us

psychic determinism

adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experiences (internal and external factors)

example of psychic determinism

FREUD → behaviour driven by libido which focuses on different body zones (mouth, anus etc.) and if a child is frustrated or over-indulged, the individual becomes fixated at that stage + their behaviour will surround obtaining satisfaction at that stage

soft determinism

there may be a cause for all human action but people have conscious control over the way they behave e.g. cognitive and SLT approach allowing for conscious mental control of behaviour

scientific emphasis on causal explanations (x3)

1. every event has a cause and figuring this out is important as it allows scientists to predict and control events in the future

2. every theory has a hypothesis which is tested using empirical methods (establishing a causal explanation)

3. argues something out of our control causes our behaviour

free will

human beings are self-determining and free to choose our thoughts and actions (doesn’t deny biological and environmental forces but argues we are able to reject them)

examples of free will (x2)

1. humanistic approach + Roger’s client centred therapy = helping the client to decide on their best course of action by reflecting on possibilities and their consequences

2. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs = choices we make further up the hierarchy that decides whether or not we achieve self-actualisation

STRENGTHS of determinism (x3)

1. LIBET = participants asked to hold out their arm and flex wrists when ready → found activity in the brain began half a second before the participant reported their decision suggesting it was a consequence of brain activity

2. credited with leading to causal explanations in science

3. soft determinism is a good compromise (interactionist approach e.g. SLT → environmental factors important but free to choose who or what to attend to

LIMITATIONS of determinism (x3)

1. concordance rates are not 100% in twin and family studies suggesting not completely genetic + not all people who experience fearful incidents develop phobias so not always environmental

2. tend to oversimplify behaviour → may be appropriate for non-human animals but human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors

3. moral responsibility is undermined as in legal defence → e.g. MAOA gene and the experience of an abusive childhood has reduced a sentence to imprisonment rather than the death penalty

nature

the inherited influences (genetic retransmission of characterisics making some behaviour innate)

examples of nature (x3)

1. family, twin and adoption studies shown the closer 2 individuals are genetically, the more they develop the same behaviour E.G. SZ

2. specific genes e.g. CHD13 + MAOA gene in aggression

3. evolutionary explanations emphasise the importance of nature as suggests behaviours that promote survival will be naturally selective due to adaptive behaviours being passed on to subsequent generations E.G. Bowlby = infant protected promotes close relationships

nurture

the influence of experiences and the environment on characteristics (acquired)

examples of nurture (x3)

1. learning theory = classical/operant conditioning e.g. phobias and Little Albert

2. SLT - can explain aggression as observation and imitation of role models

3. differential association theory = young people learn to be criminals from associations

STRENGTH of nature-nurture debate

research studies that support either the role of nature or nurture

LIMITATIONS of the nature-nurture debate (x3)

1. implications → E.G. if we beliebe thta our gender or race makes us less intelligent this has consequences

2. almost impossible to separate genes and the environment (+ MZ twins treated more similarly than DZ twins meaning can’t assess nature or nurture)

3. interactionist approach may be better = genetics give us a predisposition to certain behaviours which is then moderated by the environment e.g. MAGIRE = taxi drivers hippocampi was better as a result of extreme spatial memory training

levels of explanation in psychology

different behaviours might be best explained by different levels

lower levels = biological = reductionist, mid-level = psychological and higher levels = sociological = holistic

example of levels of explanation in forensics

Man attacks a youth who knocked a drink over

1. HIGH = could have witnessed aggressive responses to others and so replicated it and could have several associations with aggressive types

2. MID = misinterpreted the action of the youth as being deliberate rather than accidental (hostile attribution bias)

3. LOW = abnormal MAOA gene, brain damage in pre-frontal cortex OR low levels of serotonin meaning less inhibition of amygdala

holism

an argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study a whole individual rather than its constituent parts

example of holism

humanistic approach = saw successful therapy as those bringing together all aspects of a person

reductionism

explains behaviour by breaking it into its constituent parts based on the scientific principle that explanations should use the most basic (lowest level) principles

biological reductionism

attempts to explain beahviour at the lowest biological level in terms of the actions of genes, hormones etc.

examples of biological reductionism

MAOA gene for aggression or dopamine hypothesis for SZ

environmental reductionism

all behaviour can be explained by stimulus-response links (simple relationship between behaviour and events in the environment)

example of environmental reductionism

complex behaviour of attachment = mother likely to provide food which reduces discomfort so rewards an individual and becomes a ‘loved one’

example of machine reductionism

cognitive approach methods e.g. computer models

STRENGTHS of reductionism (x2)

1. reducing complex behaviours to isolated variables has a benefit of enabling research to be conducted in a scientific way as can operationalise variables which can then be manipulated to establish causal relationships

2. positive applications of therapy e.g. anti-psychotic drugs for SZ, systematic desensitisation for phobias

LIMITATIONS of reductionism (x2)

1. may oversimplify complex behaviours leading to a loss of validity → do not consider social context so may lack meaning e.g. pointing finger may attract attention OR an act of aggression

2. interactionist approach may be better e.g. combining drug therapy and family therapy reduces relapse rates of SZ

idiographic approach

an approach to research that focuses on an individual case as a means of understanding behaviour rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour

favour qualitative methods e.g. case studies and unstructured interviews to allow in-depth insight into individual behaviour

examples of idiographic research (x3)

1. humanistic approach favours studying the whole person and seeing the world from the perspective of that person

2. FREUD = Little Hans = 150 pages of verbatim quotes recorded by Hans’s father, descriptions of events and interpretation of the events

3. memory case studies e.g. HM = not a unified long term memory as could form procedural memories but not semantic or episodic ones

STRENGTH of idiographic approach

complete account of the individual meaning it can complement the nomothetic approach by providing further detail supporting/challenging general laws e.g. HM

LIMITATIONS of idiographic approach (x2)

1. generalisations are not possible as case studies provide such unique insights e.g. Freud criticised for developing concepts like the Oedipus complex based on only Little Hans

2. methods are unscientific and rely on subjective interpretations of the researcher, which limits its usefulness

nomothetic approach

an approach that aims to study human behaviour through the development of general behaviours and universal laws

based on the study of large groups of people using statistical techniques e.g. experiments and correlations

examples of nomothetic approach (x3)

1. biological approach = provides basic principles of how the body and brain work e.g. brain scans and using drugs to treat patients

2. defining abnormality + statistical infrequency → compares behaviour to the normal distribution to see how they compare to the general population

3. Skinner → studied the response of hundreds of rats and pigeons to establish laws of learning

STRENGTHS of nomothetic approach (x2)

1. generally scientific as the use of experimental methods, controlled measurement and the ability to predict behaviour are positives

2. controlled methods allow for replication to examine reliability of results

LIMITATIONS of nomothetic approach (x2)

1. ignores individual differences + even if two people behave in the same way, we cannot be sure it is due to the same reason e.g. drug treatments not always successful

2. may be beneficial to use idiographic and nomothetic approaches as complementary rather than contradictory e.g. start with nomothetic to establish laws and then find case study support (e.g. limbic system supported by Charles Whitman) OR observation from case study may generate idea to be tested on several individuals (e.g. Broca’s area)

implications

effects or consequences (for both the participants who took part in the study and for those affected by the knowledge gained from that research etc.)

socially sensitive research

research in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented

examples of socially sensitive research (x4)

1. Milgram = experiment caused significant distress due to unethical treatment, particpants were told or coerced to continue against their will through prods + felt they couldn’t withdraw

2. Zimbardo = consequences for prisoners (abused etc.) and prison staff (engaged in bad behaviours so potential guilt) + implications prison staff are always unethical)

3. Bowlby’s theory improved experiences for children in day care and/or hospital BUT encouraged the view that a woman’s place is at home with their children so may feel guilt returning to work etc.

4. family dysfunction = e.g. families/mothers may blame themselves for the onset of SZ

Seiber + Stanley (x3)

1. should the research be done? i.e. will it add scientific creditability to underlying prejudices

2. how might the research be used? misused?

3. how might it be communicated to a wide audience? could they be misunderstood by a wider non-academic audience?

examples of Seiber + Stanley’s ideas (x2)

1. RAINE = found reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex linked to violence so should children have brain scans to identify which of them could be potentially violent? and what would happen to them?

2. research into infant-caregiver interactions suggest children may be disadvantaged by particular child rearing practices e.g. mothers who return to work shortly after a child is born → impacts working mothers and their families

STRENGTHS of socially sensitive research (x2)

1. benefits for society e.g. research on eyewitness testimony reduces the risk of miscarriages of justice so suggests it is worth conducting

2. as long as researchers are sensitive to the potential wider implications for their research, valid and useful research will not have a negative effect (as should’ve been proactive in ensuring it is positive)

LIMITATIONS of socially sensitive research (x2)

1. can lead to issues of discrimination as research into some topics/issues may actually promote greater sensitivity and understanding of them, suggesting though they are controversial topics, they should be studied (i.e. ignoring some topics due to being socially sensitive reduces an opportunity of reducing discrimination)

2. researchers may not be able to predict such outcomes as may not be clear until research has been completed and conclusions made that there are wider implications e.g. Bowlby’s MDH = working mothers made to feel inadequate for leaving their children but this was unusual in the 1950s so couldn’t have foreseen this