1.1 Edexcel GCE Politics: UK democracy and participation

Definition of key terms and key facts about the UK democracy and participation topic.

Legitimacy

A government's legal or moral right to rule.

Representative democracy

A system in which voters vote to elect representatives to make political decisions on their behalf.

Types of representative democracy

• General, local, mayoral and Police and Crime Commissioner elections

• Surgeries

General elections

• Voters cast a vote for a single candidate (from a party or independent)

• The candidate who wins a plurality in a constituency becomes their MP

• The party with the most seats form a government and enacts their manifesto

The 2024 UK general election: the government

• Labour won 411 seats, which was 63.2% of seats

• Labour’s vote share was only 33.7%, making it “the most disproportional election” in UK history

• Their vote share was only 1.7% higher than 2019 but with half a million fewer total votes

The 2024 general election: smaller parties

• Smaller parties had record support with 42.6% of the total vote share

• The Liberal Democrats won 72 seats with 11.1% of the vote share

• The Green Party and Reform UK won a total of nine seats, despite winning a combined total of 20.7% of the vote share

Turnout of the 2024 general election

59.7%

Surgeries

• Regular sessions where MPs meet with their constituents to hear their issues and concerns

• They take place on a weekly or biweekly basis

• The murders of MPs Jo Cox and David Amess have led to some MPs to tighten security and hold fewer in-person surgeries

Different models of representation

• Delegate model

• Party/mandate model

• Trustee model (Burkean representation)

Delegate model

• Representatives act as mouthpieces for their constituents

• The expressed views and interests of voters are prioritised, even if they come into conflict with the own judgement

• This is because they believe democratic legitimacy is derived from closely reflecting public opinion

Examples of MPs acting under the delegate model

• Green Party MP Adrien Ramsey opposed electric pythons in his constituency arguably betraying his own commitment to the green cause

• In December 2025, Labour MP Markus Campbell-Savours lost the party after voting against a Budget measure concerning inheritance tax as it would affect his constituency

Trustee model (Burkean representation)

• Bristol MP and conservative thinker Edmund Burke argued that MPs are elected because of their judgement and expertise

• MPs should make decisions based on what they believe to be in the national interest

• This can at times go against the immediate wishes of their constituents

Examples of MPs acting under the trustee model

• Former Conservative MP Rory Stewart was a pro-EU Conservative and voted for Theresa May’s Brexit deals despite his constituents’ wishes

Party/mandate model

MPs are elected on a party manifesto and are expected to support and implement those policies as voters have given the party a clear mandate to govern.

Direct democracy

A system in which voters make decisions directly on laws, policies and other matters, rather than relying on representatives to make those decisions.

Different types of direct democracy in the UK

• Consultative exercises

• Electronic petitions (e-petitions)

• Recall of MPs Act 2015

• Referendums

Consultative exercises

Governing bodies can set these up to determine the likely public reaction to their proposed policies, and adjust or cancel them accordingly.

Recall of MPs Act 2015

If an MP has been imprisoned or suspended for 10 days during their time in the House of Commons, a by-election can be triggered through a petition signed by 10% of constituents.

Referendums

• Vote on a particular issue, usually requiring a yes or no response

• Called at the government’s discretion and are not legally binding

• Parliament must approve the result

• Unlikely that Parliament will ignore result in fear of public backlash

The 2016 EU membership referendum

A nationwide referendum on whether the UK should remain a member of the European Union or not.

Outcome of the 2016 EU membership referendum

Leave: 51.9%

Remain: 48.1%

Turnout of the 2016 EU membership referendum

72.2%

'Hard' Brexit

• After leaving the EU, the UK stops being a member of European single market and customs union

• The UK also gets full control over legislation and immigration

'Soft' Brexit

• After leaving the EU, the UK retains some membership of the EU single market and customs union

• The UK may not have complete control over legislation and immigration

The UK should make greater use of direct democracy

• Participation

• Representation

• The will of the majority

Direct democracy increases political participation

• Turnout in referendums are often high

• High engagements in other forms of representative democracy such as e-petitions

• People seem more likely to vote when they feel that voice counts and will make a difference

Examples of direct democracy increasing political participation through referendums

• The turnout for the 2016 EU membership referendum was 72.2%

• The turnout of the 2014 Scottish Independence referendum was 84.6%

Examples of direct democracy increasing political participation through e-petitions

• In 2019, 6.1 million people signed the ‘Revoke Article 50’ e-petition in order to stop Brexit

Responses to direct democracy increasing participation

• Turnout in these referendums (and e-petition) were high because they concerned major and controversial issues

• Other referendums, on more technical issues, saw much lower participation

Examples of referendums with low participation

• The turnout of the 2011 Alternate Vote referendum was 42.2%

• The 1997 Welsh devolution referendum was 50.2%

Direct democracy is more representative than representative democracy

• MPs often come from different backgrounds than their constituents and do not reflect the demographic make-up of the UK

• Representative democracy is run by individuals who are often put of touch with the need of their constituents

• Direct democracy allows constituents to express their views by cutting out the ‘middle man’

Examples of MPs differing from the public

• 23% of MPs are privately educated, compared to 7% of the general population

• 90% of MPs of MPs attended university, compared to 20% of those working age

• MPs hold different views from the public on issues ranging from taxation to the death penalty

Response to direct democracy being more representative than direct democracy

• The 59th Parliament is the most representative ever, with more state-educated, female and ethnic minority MPs than ever before

• MPs do not need to come from the same background to represent their interests

Examples of MPs representing interests of constituents despite not having the same background

• A majority male Parliament passed the 1970 Equal Pay Act for women

• The 1967 Abortion Act was passed under a Parliament where women composed less than 5% of it

Direct democracy reflects the will of the majority

• In referendums, everyone’s vote counts equally towards the outcome and the majority view determines the result

• In general and local elections, the result is determined by the geographical distribution of votes because of First Past The Post (FPTP)

• Parties with thinly spread support across constituencies gain disproportionally few seats

Examples of direct democracy reflecting the will of the majority

• In 2016, 51.9% voted for the UK to leave EU and this decision was upheld by the government, showing that government respected the majority decision

Responses to direct democracy reflecting the will of the majority

• Governments choose how to interpret referendum results and this does not always reflect the will of the majority

• Other voting systems are more representative than FPTP

Examples of governments choosing how to interpret referendum results and going against the will of the majority

• The majority opposed the ‘hard’ Brexit pushed former Conservative MP Boris Johnson

2014 Scottish Independence referendum

Scottish voters voted on whether Scotland should remain a part of the UK or become sovereign and independent of the UK.

Outcome of 2014 Scottish Independence referendum

No: 55.3%

Yes: 44.7%

Turnout of 2014 Scottish Independence referendum

84.6%

'Revoke Article 50' e-petition

In 2019, 6.1 million people signed an e-petition to revoke Article 50 and prevent Brexit.

The 2011 Alternate Vote (AV) referendum

A nationwide referendum on whether to retain First Past The Post as the electoral system used in parliamentary elections or switch to an alternate voting system.

Outcome of the 2011 Alternate Vote referendum

No: 67.9%

Yes: 32.1%

Turnout of 2011 Alternate Vote referendum

42.2%

Education levels of MPs vs the general public

• 23% of MPs are privately educated, compared to 7% of the general population

• 90% of MPs of MPs attended university, compared to 20% of those working age

Representative democracy is superior to direct democracy

• Expertise

• Minority rights

• Practicality

Representatives have greater expertise

• Representatives have the time and resources to become informed on issues

• By comparison, the electorate often lacks the information necessary to make complex decisions

Examples of the electorate being uninformed

• British people think teenage pregnancies are 25 times higher than they are

• They also over-estimate immigration and crime rates

• They believe that foreign aid is the highest spending area of government spending, when it only makes up about 1.1%

Response to representatives having greater expertise

• Many MPs are ill-informed

• Direct democracy would encourage the electorate to inform themselves

Examples of MPs being ill-informed

• Just over half of MPs could answer a basic probability question

Examples of direct democracy encouraging people to become more informed

• The Electoral Reform Society found that during the 2014 Scottish Independence referendum, voters informed themselves on the issue and this likely contributed to the high turnout

Representative democracy better protects minority rights

The public can hold prejudiced views that threaten the rights of minorities, while representatives can choose to dismiss the majority opinion in some cases to protect minority rights.

Examples of the public holding prejudiced views

• The 2009 Swiss minaret referendum leads to the bam of the minaret in Switzerland with 57.5% support

• In 2021, 51.2% voted to ban the burqa and niqab in Switzerland

Responses to representative democracy being better at protecting minority rights

• Elected representatives can also threaten minority rights

Examples of MPs threatening minority rights

• In 2020, MPs voted down a bill to protect child refugees

Representative democracy is more practical than direct democracy

Decisions based on referendums and petitions could not be made quickly enough in response to complex and fast changing situations.

Examples of representative democracy being more practical than direct democracy

• During COVID-19, the government had to make quick decisions on regulations such as tiers and lockdown restrictions in response to high infection and fatality rates

Responses to representative democracy being more practical than direct democracy

• Modern technology, such as the House of Lords’ online voting system, would make direct democracy more practical

• Switzerland, which often uses direct democracy, is prosperous and functioning

Participation crisis

A significant proportion of the general population is not engaging with the political process.

There is a participation crisis

• Average voter turnout in general elections has declined

• There has been a decline in party membership

Voter turnout in comparison to 20th century

• Average voter turnout in general elections has declined relative to the average throughout the 20th century

• As of 2024, turnout has not returned to the levels seen between 1922 and 1997

Voter turnout in the 21st century

• Only the 2015 general election has had a turnout higher than 70%

• The turnout of the 2024 general election was the lowest since 2001

• Local, regional and mayoral elections see even lower turnout

Factors in low turnout

• Lack of trust in politicians

• Partisan dealignment

• Political disengagement

Lack of trust in politicians as a factor in low turnout

• Scandals such as Partygate had reduced trust in politicians to serve well

• The UK has had poor economic performance since the 2008 financial crash

• There have several policy failures such as the Iraq War

Partisan dealignment as a factor in low turnout

• People are increasingly less likely to identify with a part, particularly Labour or Conservative

• This means that they will not vote when they do not like the candidates or the manifesto that they have pledged

Political disengagement

• Turnout is particularly low among the most disadvantaged in society

• Only 53% of DE voters voted in 2019

• This suggest that the most disadvantaged do not feel that things will change by engaging in the political process

Turnout among DE social grade voters

• In 2019, only 53% of DE voters voted in the UK general election

• In 2024, 45% of DE voters voted in the UK general election according to Ipsos

Party membership decline of the two main parties

• Conservative membership has declined from 2.8 million in 1953 to 200,000 in 2021

• Labour membership has declined from over a million to 400,000

• Labour membership briefly spiked under Corbyn but has declined since Starmer became leader

There is no participation crisis

Decline in turnout and party membership simply reflects the emergence of new ways of participating in politics, and that there is no participation crisis.

Other/new forms of participation

• E-petitions

• Minor parties

• Online activism

• Pressure groups

• Protests

• Referendums

E-petitions as another from of participation

There have been many e-petitions on a wide range of issues, some attracting large support

Examples of e-petitions as another form of participation

• The ‘Revoke Article 50’ e-petition attracted 6.1 million signatures

Minor parties as an other form of participation

The membership and vote share of minor parties has increased, taking away support from the two minor parties.

Examples of minor parties as an other form of participation

• The Green Party and Reform UK gained a total of 9 seats in the 2024 general election and both had their largest vote share so far

Online activism as another type of participation

Many people engage with politics and the news online, sharing stories and following social media accounts.

Examples of online activism as another type of participation

• Reform MP Nigel Farage has nearly a million followers on TikTok, many of whom are Gen Z boys

Pressure groups as another type of participation

• Cause groups raise awareness of an support various causes

Examples of pressure groups as another type of participation

• Amnesty International campaigns on the freedom of those living Hong Kong, protesting against the Chinese government

Protests as another form of participation

Mass public protests have become more common for important social issues.

Examples of protests as another type of participation

• The Black Lives Matter protests in 2020

• The pro-Palestine marches in London in 2023-2024

Referendums as another type of participation

Increasingly more referendums have been held since 1997, often yielding high turnout.

Examples of referendums as another form of participation

• Regionally, the turnout of the 2014 Scottish Independence referendum was 84.6%

• Nationally, the turnout of the 2016 EU membership referendum was 72.2%

Democratic deficit

A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, owing to a lack of democratic input or accountability.

Factors leading to a democratic deficit

• Centralisation

• FPTP

• Low turnout

• The House of Lords

Centralisation as a factor in the UK having a democratic deficit

The UK gives a relatively high degree of control to the national government, with local governments and mayors having comparatively few powers.

FPTP as a factor in the UK having a democratic deficit

The voting system gives an advantage to Labour and the Conservatives over smaller parties, leading to ‘wasted’ votes and disproportional results.

Low turnout as a factor in the UK having a democratic deficit

Low turnout in elections (59.7% in 2024) means that governments are elected by a minority of the population, undermining their democratic legitimacy.

The House of Lords as a factor in the UK having a democratic deficit

The House of Lords is unelected and many peers are appointed by the PM, encouraging cronyism and reducing democratic accountability.

Possible solutions to the UK’s democratic deficit

• Compulsory voting

• E-petitions

• Further devolution

• House of Lords reform

• People’s referendums

• Power of recall

• Votes for prisoners

Compulsory voting could resolve the UK’s democratic deficit

• Voting can be argued to be a civic responsibility and there is a precedent for compulsory civic service

• Low turnouts undermine the legitimacy of the result

• DE voters are less likely to vote and so their views are underrepresented

• Compulsory voting can allow voters to spoil their ballot, so you aren’t forced to vote for anyone

• It would encourage voters to educate themselves

Examples of compulsory voting resulting in higher turnout

• In the 2022 Australian federal election, turnout was 89.8%

Compulsory voting could not resolve the UK’s democratic deficit

• Not voting itself can send a powerful message

• Increasing votes of those less politically engaged leads to a less informed result and worse policy decisions

• The right to vote includes the right not to vote; coercion is alien to British politics

• Uninformed or coerced votes arguably lack legitimacy

• Politicians may feel less of an incentive to encourage turnout by engaging with disadvantaged groups

Examples of how not voting sends a powerful message

• Low turnout in recent general elections suggest a lack of enthusiasm for the main parties

Compulsory voting in Australia

• Voters face a $20 fine for failing to vote

• This fine rises to $50 if they fail to pay or provide an excuse

• Turnout is typically 90% or higher in Australian federal elections

Digital democracy could resolve the UK’s democratic deficit

Supporters of digital democracy argue that facilitating voting and encouraging electronic political discussion will lead to greater political engagement and higher turnout.

Examples of digital democracy increasing turnout

• Voting on your mobile phone would making voting more convenient and likely encourage more voting

Digital democracy could not resolve the UK’s democratic deficit

• Voting your phone would make voters more vulnerable to manipulation as voting would not be carried out in secret

• Allegations of Russian cyber-interference in Western elections suggest that e-voting is more open to fraud than traditional voting

• Social media may encourage populist rhetoric rather than informed political debate

• Debates on social media could be considered ‘bullying’ more so than actual debate

E-petitions could resolve the UK’s democratic deficit

Petitions force governments to address issues they would otherwise overlook because of cost or ideology.

Examples of e-petitions forcing governments to address issues

• The ‘End child food poverty’ e-petition gained over a million signatures

• This was in part due to footballer Marcus Rashford