AP Psych Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

Nature vs. Nurture in developmental psychology

Extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior

biological, evolutionary scientists —> nature

behavioral —> nurture (physical structures are inherited, environment shapes us)

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Whether development is gradual, cumulative change from conception to death, or a sequence of distinct stages

Behaviorists: quantitative changes + continuity

Theorists: distinct qualitative changes in kind, structure, organization

Stability vs. Change

Whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the life span

Psychoanalysts: Believed that personality traits in the first 5 years predict adult personality

Change theorists: Personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences, etc.

Longitudinal Study

Follows the same group of people over a period from months to many years in order to evaluate changes in these individuals

• costly

• takes a long time

• loses participants over time

• cant generalize to the whole population

Cross-sectional study

Researchers assess developmental changes w/ respect to a particular factor by evaluating different age groups

• if a cohort is different in their experiences from other groups, it can alter results (confounding variable)

Cohort Effect

Differences in the experiences of each age group as a result of growing up during different historical times

Cohort sequential studies

Cross-sectional groups are assessed at least two times over a span of months or years, rather than just once

• results from one cohort are compared with other cohorts at the same age to evaluate similarity

• differences indicate the cohort effect

Retrospective studies

Case studies that investigate development in one person at a time

• a researcher interviews an individual at the older end of the age span of interest

• detailed, not always correct because of memory inaccuracy

Critical period

Time interval during which specific stimuli have a major effect on development

Prenatal development

Fertilization —> conception —> birth

1. Zygote

2. 2 weeks- zygote divides again and again to form a hollow ball of cells

3. Attaches itself to uterine wall and attached to uterine lining

4. Becomes an embryo

5. 3-8 weeks- Organs start to develop as a result of differentiation

   1. As it develops, sensitive to outside environment

6. 8 weeks- Head, partially formed eyes, rudimentary organs

7. 9 weeks- fetus, organ systems begin to interact

Teratogens

Chemicals (alchohol, drugs, mercury, lead, cadmium, etc) that can cause birth defects

Birth defects

Usually occur during the embryonic period

Critical period for basic systems

eyes, ears, arms, legs, hands, heart

1st trimester

Critical period for reproductive systems

1-2 trimesters

Critical period for the nervous system

all three trimesters

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Cluster of abnormalities in babies whose mothers drink during pregnancy

• low intelligence

• flat face

• misshapen eyes

• flat nose

• thin upper lip

Cigarettes during pregnancy

Miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, low birth weight

Heroine, cocaine during pregnancy

Children may undergo withdrawal symptoms

Malnutrition + birth defects

Vitamins ingested in large quantities can be teratogenic

High Vitamin A —> heart, nervous system, facial defects

Rubella —> cataracts, deafness, heart defects, learning/speech/hearing disabilities, Type 1 diabetes

Neonates

Newborn babies

Rooting

Neonate turns their head when touched on the cheek and then puts the stimulus in their mouth

Sucking

Automatic response of drawing in anything at the mouth

Swallowing

Contraction of throat muscles that enabled food to pass into the esophagus without choking

Grasping reflex

Infant closes their finger tightly around any object in their hand

Moro/startle reflex

A loud noise or sudden drop causes the neonate to arch their back, fling limbs out, and retract them

Neonate’s early behavior

• infants respond to human face after birth

• preference for voice/odor of mothers

• vision is best for objects in the distance between their eyes to mother’s face

• Prefer certain complex patterns

• Sense of hearing dominant in first few months

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus

Infant’s physical development during the first two years

• brain development is extremely rapid

• body proportions change

• physical development of musculoskeletal system

Puberty

sexual maturation, onset of the ability to reproduce

primary sex characteristics begin to produce mature sex cells + external genitals

Secondary sex characteristics

Nonreproductive features associated w/ sexual maturity

Changes in the brain during adolescence

Selective pruning of unused dendrites, development of emotional limbic system, frontal lobe maturation

Decline of physical capabilities after mid-20s

decreased vigor, changes in fat distribution, loss of hair pigmentation, wrinkles

thickening eye lenses, brain begins to atrophy, sensitivity to tastes/odor/temperature decreases

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

1. birth-2 years: sensorimotor

   1. Object permanence

   2. Stranger anxiety

2. 2-7 years: preoperational

   1. Egocentrism

   2. Pretend play

3. 7-11 years: Concrete operational

   1. Conservation

   2. mathematical operations

4. 12-adult: Formal operational

   1. Abstract logic

Piaget’s Theory

All knowledge begins with building blocks called schemas, and through the process of assimilation, we fit new information into our existing schemas. Through accommodation, we modify our schemas to fit new information

Sensorimotor stage

The baby explores using their senses and motor interactions with objects in the environment

• 8-10 months; object permanence

• 8 months; stranger anxiety

Object permanence

Awareness that objects continue to exist even when out of sight, develops gradually

Stranger anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people, they can differentiate among people they know and do not know

Preoperational Stage

Language develops along with the ability to think. Uses trial and error to figure out how things work

Child is mainly egocentric

Concrete operational stage

Develop simple logic and master conservation concepts. Classifies objects into categories mentally

Formal operational stage

Think abstractly and hypothetically, can manipulate information in their heads and make inferences. Shifts in perspectives.

Lev Vygotsky

Emphasized role of environment and gradual growth in intellectual functioning

Thought that development proceeds mainly from the outside in by the process of internalization

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Assigns a significant role to mentors such as parents, teachers, etc.

• ZPD

• Instructor and child works closely together to reach the goal

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with the assistance of adults or more-skilled children

Cognitive changes in adults

Fluid intelligence diminishes w/ aging, but crystallized intelligence generally improves

Lawrence Kohlberg

Thought that moral thinking develops sequentially in stages as cognitive abilities develop.

Examined moral development by asking boys/men of different ages to solve hypothetical problems

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

1. preconventional- do the right thing to avoid punishment (1) or to further their self-interest (2)

2. conventional- follow rules to live up expectations of others (3), or maintain law and order (4)

3. postconventional- evidence a social contract orientation that promotes society’s welfare (5) or evidence an ethical principle orientation that promotes justice (6)

Carol Gillman

Applied Kohlberg’s scale to women.

• Women rarely reach the highest stages of morality because they think more about the caring thing

Theories of social development

Look at the influence of others on the development of a person

Bonding

Creation of a close emotional relationship between the mother and baby shortly after birth

Attachment

Infant gradually forms a close emotional relationship with their mother or other caregivers

Harry Harlow’s Monkey experiment

Disproved the belief that when he found the baby monkeys separated from their mothers preferred to spent time w/ a cloth substitute rather than a bare wire with food

Mary Ainsworth

• Secure attachment

• Insecure attachment

Secure attachment

When their mothers returned, they were happy to see them and receive their contact

Insecure attachment

Ignored their mothers when they were there, were upset when they were gone, but rejected them when they returned

Temperament

Natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular intensity for a specific period

Easy babies

Cheerful, relaxed, predictable sleeping/eating patterns

Difficult babies

Irritable, intense, unpredictable

Self-awareness

Consciousness of oneself as a person

Social referencing

Observing the behavior of others in social situations

Diana Baumrind

How parenting styles affect the emotional growth of children

• authoritarian

• authoritative

• permissive

• uninvolved

Authoritarian

Parents set up strict rules, expect children to follow them, and punish wrongdoing

Authoritative

Parents set limits but explain the reasons for rules and make exceptions

Permissive

No firm guidelines, more responsive than demanding

Uninvolved

few demands, low responsiveness, communicate little with their children

Erik Erikson

Influential theorist, examined development across the life span in a social context, psychosocial development

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

1. First year; trust vs. mistrust, sense of security

2. Second year; autonomy vs. shame/doubt, sense of independence

3. 3-5 years; initiative vs. guilt; balance between spontaneity and restraint

4. 6 years to puberty; industry vs. inferiority; sense of self-confidence

5. Adolescence; identify vs. role confusion; unified sense of self

6. Young adulthood; intimacy vs. isolation; form close personal relationships

7. Middle adulthood; generativity vs. stagnation; promote well-being of others

8. Late adulthood; integrity vs. despair; sense of satisfaction with life well-lived

1- Trust vs. Mistrust

Parents must provide a safe, consistent, and loving environment for children to leave this stage healthily with a strong trust that others care for them

2- Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Children’s needs to develop self-control and do things for themselves, which can result in problems, but they must be encouraged to try new skills

3- Initiative vs. Guilt

Children need to learn to make plans and carry out tasks through play, asking questions, making choices to develop initiative. If they do not, children feel guilty

4- Industry vs. inferiority

Children need to be positively reinforced for productive activities, otherwise it can lead to a poor self-concept

5- Identity vs. role confusion

Peer relationships become important, failure of teens to achieve an identity results in role confusion

6- Intimacy vs. isolation

Without intimacy, people feel alone and uncared for in life

7- Generativity vs. stagnation

Adults need to express their caring about the future generations otherwise they will become stagnant and preoccupied with themselves

8- Integrity vs. despair

Those who look back on their lives with satisfaction, will not feel despair

Elisabeth Kulber-Ross

Terminally ill-patients pass through five stages of coping

1. denial

2. anger

3. bargaining

4. depression

5. acceptance

Gender

Sociocultural dimension of being biologically male or femae

Gender roles

Sets of expectations that prescribe how males/females should act, think, or feel

Gender roles Biological

Attributes differences in sex to genetics

Male sex hormones influence brain development

Females have a larger corpus callosum

Gender roles Evolutionary

Behavioral tendencies to prepare us to survive, males are more likely to be risk-takers, show dominance, etc.

Gender roles Psychoanalytic

Young girls learn to act feminine from their mothers, and young boys learn to act masculine from their fathers

Gender roles Behavioral

Children respond to rewards and punishments for their behaviors, and they observe and imitate significant role models

Gender roles Cognitive

Children actively engage in making meaning out of information.