Which of the following is not a component of the endomembrane system?
\ a. Golgi apparatus
b. endoplasmic reticulum
c. mitochondrion
d. lysosome
C. mitochondrion
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a membrane bound structure used for storage
vacuole
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Evolution
the framework in which the modern study of biology happens
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The modern synthesis unites
the fields of genetics and evolution
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the principles of evolution can
be explained in terms of inheritance
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DNA
the genetic material and its structure helps to explain both genetics and evolution.
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Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
Natural science are different fields of science that relates to the physical world and its phenomena and processes.
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Summarize the steps of the scientific method
Observation, Question, hypothesis that answers a question, Prediction based on the hypothesis, Do an experiment to test the prediction, Analyze the results
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Order
class division in the taxonomic classification system
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Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli
organisms respond to diverse stimuli
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Reproduction
the production of offspring
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Growth and development
consistent growth and development controlled by DNA
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Regulation
maintaining homeostasis
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Homeostasis
process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
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Energy processing
the use of chemical energy to power an organism's activities and chemical reactions
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Describe the levels of organization among living things
organelle, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystem, and biosphere.
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PROPERTIES OF LIFE (7)
Order Sensitivity or response to stimuli Reproduction Growth and development Regulation Homeostasis Energy processing
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ORDER
A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. (credit: "Ivengo"/Wikimedia Commons)
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RESPONSE TO STIMULI
The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and fold when touched. After a few minutes, the plant returns to normal. (credit: Alex Lomas)
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (10)
Atoms Molecules Macromolecules Organelles Cells Tissues Organs and organ systems Organisms, populations, and communities Ecosystems biosphere
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BIOLOGICAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
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THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE
This phylogenetic tree was constructed by microbiologist Carl Woese using data obtained from sequencing ribosomal RNA genes. The tree shows the separation of living organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes, single-celled organisms lacking intracellular organelles. (credit: Eric Gaba; NASA Astrobiology Institute)
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The modern synthesis of genetics and evolution
Principles came together in the DNA molecule. Properties and functions of DNA can explain both evolution and genetics
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Modern synthesis
Evolution is a change in the genetic makeup of a population from one generation to the next
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Evolution by natural selection
The process in which the environment determines which individuals survive and reproduce.
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Mendel
Father of genetics
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Mendel's laws of heredity (2)
1. Law of segregation 2. law of independent assortment
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Cell theory
idea that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and new cells are produced from existing cells
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The double helix
Shape of DNA
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DNA replication
the process of making a copy of DNA
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Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
DNA -\> RNA -\> Protein
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Evolution (Darwin) (2)
1. Variation 2. Natural Selection
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Heredity (Mendel) (2)
1. Law of segregation 2. Law of independent assortment
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Covalent Bond (2)
1. Non-Polar covalent 2. Polar Covalent
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Special Properties of water make life possible (4)
1. Versatility as solvent 2. Temperature moderation 3. Less dense as a solid 4. Cohesion and adhesion (and capillary action)
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How are the structure and chemical properties of a water molecule related to the special physical properties water exhibits? (4)
1. Ability to moderate temperature 2. Expansion upon freezing 3. Solvation (solvent of life) 4. Adhesion and cohesion
cannot rotate, so the atoms on either side are locked in place.
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Carbon
can form five-and six membered rings. Single or double bonds may connect the carbons in the ring, and nitrogen may be substituted for carbon.
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Molecules that have the same number and type of atoms arranged differently are called isomers. (3)
1. Structural isomers have a different covalent arrangement of atoms.
2. Geometric isomers have a different arrangement of atoms around a double bond.
3. Enantiomers are mirror images of each other.
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Cis
Space filling
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Trans
Fatty acid
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Enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other
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Hydrogen bonds
connect two strands of DNA together to create the double-helix structure.
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Hexoses
Glucose, galactose, and fructose
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Structural isomers
they have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6) but a different atom arrangement.
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Monosaccharides
Five and six carbon
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Fructose and ribose
also form rings, although they form five-membered rings as opposed to the six-membered ring of glucose.
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Sucrose
forms when a glucose monomer and a fructose monomer join in a dehydration reaction to form a glycosidic bond. In the process, a water molecule is lost. By convention, the carbon atoms in a monosaccharide are numbered from the terminal carbon closest to the carbonyl group. In sucrose, a glycosidic linkage forms between carbon 1 in glucose and carbon 2 in fructose.
Branched glucose monomer chains comprise amylopectin by α 1-4 and α 1-6 glycosidic linkages
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Glycogen granules
extensively branches
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Cellulose
Polymer of beta glucose linked 1,4
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Glycosylation
contributes to specificity of molecular interactions glycoproteins and glycolipids
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proteoglycan network
important components of the extracellular matrix
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Stearic acid
common saturated fatty acid
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oleic acid
common unsaturated fatty acid
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Saturated fatty acids
have hydrocarbon chains connected by single bonds only.
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Unsaturated fatty acid
have one or more double bonds. Each double bond may be in a cis or trans configuration. In the cis configuration, both hydrogens are on the same side of the hydrocarbon chain. In the trans configuration, the hydrogens are on opposite sides. A cis double bond causes a kink in the chain.
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Alpha-linolenic acid
It has three cis double bonds and, as a result, a curved shape
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Lipids
comprise waxy coverings on some leaves
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phospholipid
a molecule with two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone. Adding a charged or polar chemical group may modify the phosphate.
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phospholipid bilayer
the major component of all cellular membranes
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The hydrophilic head
groups of the phospholipids face the aqueous solution.
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The hydrophobic tails
are sequestered in the middle of the bilayer.
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Cholesterol
Versatile lipid in animals
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How does cholesterol work? (3)
1. incorporates into phospholipid bilayers to regulate the rigidity of biological membranes 2. precursor for bile acids, which aid in the digestion of fats 3. precursor for steroid hormones
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Steroids
Hormones made from cholesterol
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Synthetic steroids
many medicinal uses
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Amino acids
have a central asymmetric carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R group) are attached.
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Peptide bond formation
a dehydration synthesis reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid is linked to the incoming amino acid's amino group. In the process, it releases a water molecule.
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Bovine serum insulin
a protein hormone comprised of two peptide chains, A (21 amino acids long) and B (30 amino acids long). In each chain, three-letter abbreviations that represent the amino acids' names in the order they are present indicate primary structure. The amino acid cysteine (cys) has a sulfhydryl (SH) group as a side chain. Two sulfhydryl groups can react in the presence of oxygen to form a disulfide (S-S) bond. Two disulfide bonds connect the A and B chains together, and a third helps the A chain fold into the correct shape. Note that all disulfide bonds are the same length, but we have drawn them different sizes for clarity.
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Native DNA
an antiparallel double helix.
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The phosphate backbone
On the outside
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Bases of DNA
on the inside
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A ribosome has two parts:
a large subunit and a small subunit. The mRNA sits in between the two subunits. A tRNA molecule recognizes a codon on the mRNA, binds to it by complementary base pairing, and adds the correct amino acid to the growing peptide chain.
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All life on earth is
descended from a common ancestor
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All prokaryotes
chromosomal DNA localized in a nucleoid, ribosomes, a cell membrane, and a cell wall. The other structures shown are present in some, but not all, bacteria.
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Animal cell
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Plant cell
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Nucleus
stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance called the nucleoplasm.
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chromatin
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chromosomes
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Mitrocondria
Powerhouse of the cell
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Chloroplast
Site of photosynthesis
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Endosymbiosis
a mutually beneficial relationship in which one organism lives within another
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endomembrane system
Protein Processing, Trafficking, and Secretion
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cytoskeleton
A network of long protein strands in the cytosol that helps support the cell
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Microtubules
Spiral strands of protein molecules that form a tubelike structure
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extracellular matrix consists of
a network of proteins and carbohydrates.
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plasmodesma
a channel between two adjacent plant cells' cell walls. Plasmodesmata allow materials to pass from one plant cell's cytoplasm to an adjacent cell's cytoplasm.
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gap junction
a protein-lined pore that allows water and small molecules to pass between adjacent animal cells.
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Tight junctions
form watertight connections between adjacent animal cells. Proteins create tight junction adherence
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desmosome
a very strong spot weld between cells. It is created by the linkage of cadherins and intermediate filaments