IB Geography: Urban Environments

Urbanization

Urbanization

The increasing concentration of populations in urban areas.

Rural-Urban Migration

The movement of people from rural areas to urban centers.

Push and Pull Factors

Forces that encourage people to leave rural areas (push) and attract them to urban areas (pull).

Industrialization

The shift from agrarian economies to industrialized societies often leads to the growth of urban centers.

Employment Opportunities

Cities offer diverse job opportunities, drawing people seeking employment.

Technological Advancements

Improved transportation and communication contribute to increased urbanization.

Site and Situation

Site refers to the actual land on which a settlement is built, while situation refers to its relationship with its surroundings.

Vertical Zoning

The use of different floors in a building for different functions to make up for the lack of space in urban areas.

Range

The maximum distance people are prepared to travel for goods and services.

Threshold

The minimum number of people required for a goods and services to stay in business.

Sphere of Influence

The area served by a settlement.

Low-Order Goods

Necessities that only require a small hamlet or dispersed households to support.

High-Order Goods

Luxuries that are shared by a few villages due to specialization.

Conurbation

When two or more cities merge into one.

Megacity

A large-scale city region.

Megalopolis

When cities sprawl and merge into one.

Megacities

Dominated by young adults who migrate in search of jobs, leading to high birth rates and rapid economic growth.

Urban Growth and Economic Development

There is a correlation between urban growth and economic development, with cities serving as centers of commerce, industry, politics, administration, and social activities.

Land Use Zones

Areas within a city with specific functions, such as residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational zones.

Central Business District (CBD)

The core of a city, usually characterized by high-density commercial and office buildings.

Residential Areas

Spaces dedicated to housing and accommodation.

Industrial Zones

Areas designated for manufacturing and industrial activities.

Concentric Zone Model

A model that envisions a city with concentric rings, each representing different land use zones.

Sector Model

A model that suggests that cities develop in pie-shaped sectors based on transportation routes.

Multiple Nuclei Model

A model that argues that cities have multiple centers of development.

Urban Sprawl

The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural landscapes.

Gentrification

The transformation of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.

Sustainability

Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Infrastructure

The fundamental facilities and systems serving a city, including transportation, water supply, and energy networks.

Traffic Congestion

The result of increased urbanization, inadequate transportation systems, and a growing number of vehicles.

Housing Shortages

High demand for housing can lead to shortages and increased prices.

Environmental Degradation

Urbanization often results in pollution, deforestation, and habitat loss.

Social Inequality

Disparities in income and access to resources can lead to social unrest.

Smart Cities

Integration of technology to improve the efficiency of urban services.

Mixed-Use Development

Combining residential, commercial, and recreational spaces to reduce the need for extensive transportation.

Green Infrastructure

Incorporating natural elements into urban planning to promote environmental sustainability.

Urban Microclimates

The structure of air and surface characteristics in urban areas that influence temperature, pressure, winds, and precipitation patterns.

Reduction of Heat Diffusion

Changes in airflow patterns in urban areas lead to a reduction in the diffusion of heat.

Urban heat Island Effect

Urban areas are warmer than surrounding rural areas, especially during anticyclonic conditions, due to factors such as reduced airflow and the development of a pollution dome.

Pollution Dome

Urban areas develop a pollution dome with cooler air above it, which prevents pollutants from dispersing and leads to a small temperature difference between day and night.

Air Pollution Patterns

Population growth in urban areas leads to increased industrial development, energy consumption, and air pollution, particularly from vehicles and domestic activities.

Indoor Air Pollution

In low-income countries, the burning of firewood and paraffin for cooking and heating contributes to indoor air pollution due to limited resources to cope with population growth.

Pollution Management Strategies

Strategies to manage air pollution include using energy-efficient technologies, promoting public transport and carpooling, implementing emission standards, and creating green spaces to reduce the effects of urban heat islands and air pollution.

Traffic Congestion Patterns

Traffic congestion is more prevalent on weekdays, during the start of the school year, festivals, and national holidays, with morning and evening peaks. It can lead to noise disturbance and associated health risks.

Contested Land

Land in urban areas can be contested due to events like the Rio de Janeiro Olympics, anti-capitalist protests, and potential development projects that may displace people living in slums.

Depletion of Urban Green Spaces

Urban green spaces, despite their importance for physical and mental well-being, often have little economic value and are not favored by developers. Efforts to increase green spaces through compensatory afforestation projects do not necessarily decrease air or noise pollution.

Urban Crime

Crime hotspots in residential areas lacking health centers, schools, recreational areas, and police stations are more prone to crime due to easy access and lack of security. Measures to address urban crime include increased surveillance, improved street lighting, and adopting a zero-tolerance policy.

Future Trends in Urbanization

Megacities, the rural-urban continuum, overpopulation, the digital divide, resilience planning, smart urbanization, climate change adaptation, and rural revitalization are key concepts and challenges that shape the future of urbanization.

Resilient City Design

Resilient city design focuses on creating properly functioning transport networks, energy, water, and waste infrastructure to reduce ecological footprints, vulnerability to pollution, and promote social mobility. It also emphasizes the importance of clean water, affordable housing, open spaces, and preparing for weather events.

Eco-City Design

Eco-city design aims to minimize environmental impact by conserving non-renewable resources, providing green spaces, involving the local community, and promoting energy efficiency. Examples include Beddington 0 Energy Development (BedZED) and the C40 initiative.

Smart Cities

Smart cities are characterized by their performance in the economy, environment, people, governance, mobility, and living conditions. They rely on information and communication technology (ICT) and social infrastructure to manage resources efficiently and improve quality of life.