IB Geography: Urban Environments
Urbanization is the process of population concentration into cities.
This phenomenon has been a defining characteristic of human development over the last century.
Understanding the factors that drive urbanization is crucial for comprehending the challenges and opportunities posed by the urban environment.
Key Concepts:
Urbanization:
The increasing concentration of populations in urban areas.
Rural-Urban Migration:
The movement of people from rural areas to urban centres.
Push and Pull Factors:
Forces that encourage people to leave rural areas (push) and attract them to urban areas (pull).
Causes of Urbanization:
Industrialization:
The shift from agrarian economies to industrialized societies often leads to the growth of urban centres.
Employment Opportunities:
Cities offer diverse job opportunities, drawing people seeking employment.
Technological Advancements:
Improved transportation and communication contribute to increased urbanisation
Urbanization:
Site: actual land on which a settlement is built; situation: r/s w/ its surroundings
Desirability enhanced with physical, social and economic factors (esp w/ industrialization and trade)
Industrial, service (recreation or transport)/residential role (incl open space) can change in proportion over time
Agricultural roles → steadily diminished in urban areas
Mostly in rural areas where population density is low
Industrialized areas with good access to resources
develop to become cities
Vertical Zoning: same building is used for 1 function:1 floor and another function on another floor to make up for the lack of space in urban areas
Range: max distance people are prepared to travel for G&S
Threshold: minimum number of people required for a G&S to stay in business
Sphere of Influence: area served by a settlement
Low-Order Goods: necessities (need only a small hamlet - dispersed, individual households w/small population to support) → limited range
High-Order Goods: luxuries (shared by a few villages due to specialization) → larger population
Conurbation: ≥ 2 cities merge, millionaire city & megacity,
Metacity: large-scale city regions
Megalopolis: cities sprawl and merge into 1
Large urban areas provide large number of high-order and low-order goods to a large population
Megacities:
Dominated by young adults (migrate searching for jobs) → high birth rates
Rapid EG and urbanization → large generation of wealth and large scale of environmental impacts new forms of planning and management to cope
Urban Growth and Economic Development:
Correlation between urban growth and ED
Commercial, industrial, political, administral and social function
Stimulus for development, EOS for health and education, ethnic, tribal and religious intermixing → weaken ties to traditional rural beliefs and customs
Cannot cope w/ growing population
high rates of unemployment
overloaded & overcrowded
transport systems
air, water and noise pollution
insufficient housing, sanitation and water supplies
deteriorating infrastructure and shortfalls in service delivery
Growing inequalities in access to infrastructure and services due to income gap → increased prevalence of social problems
Many health issues occur as an indirect impact ⇒ decline in quality of life
Urban Settlement Functions:
Trade and comms, mining and industrial areas, tourist resorts, govt services and high-tech industries (administrative center)
Settlements in favored areas have greater growth potential and a greater range of services and functions (may change over time)
Lowland coastal plains w/ links inland
Vance: development of settlements occurred as a result of trade interactions (external influences → centers of innovation for external commercial forces
Losch: cities grow due to transport accessibility that plays a large role in efficiency and can produce corridors or urban areas
Build new towns and new capital cities to deflect growth to accommodate the overspill population and ease chronic overcrowding + redistribute the state's wealth
Relocation of people to ensure their environment for living and working is ideal
Factors of Urban Economic Activity Patterns:
Bid-Rent Theory: limited land at the city centre that is most expensive as it's the most accessible land to public transport
Secondary peaks at intersections of main roads and ring roads (multi nuclei) & increased use of private transport in inner city areas
Low-Order Goods: neighborhood stores and shopping parades (shop clusters)
High-Order Goods: high street shops, dept stores
Out-of-Town Superstores and Retail Parks: large outlets close to residential areas
Congestion and inflated land price in city center → sub & counter-urbanization (increased accessibility to these sites) of more affluent households
Changes:
Economic change → more women in paid work → increased standard of living & car ownership
Demographic change → smaller households, more elderly → online shopping
Tech change→ more families own deep freezers (don't need to shop daily)
closure of high street shops due to changes in shopping habits (govt policies to revitalize retailing in central areas & inner-city redevelopment) - e.g. traffic-free zones
Leads to decentralization of other commercial activity and business parks in suburban sites
Central Business Districts: commercial and economic core of a city (coincides with/ place of peak land value)
Industrial Zones: inner-city areas and brownfield suburban sites (near airports) away from residential areas (pollution)
Those needing skilled labor, access to CBD and urban market for distribution
Cities are major centers of innovation, ideas and fashion → manufacturing centers + access to international market through a variety of labor (skilled and unskilled) → large markets
Planning urban economic activities: restrict development in particular areas (pollution)
Factors Affecting Location of Urban Areas:
Rich | Poor |
places with/ pleasant views and offer recreational activities → high ground that's safe and building standards account for risks | forced to live in areas of steep relief and be at risk of mass movements (informal housing) not protected against hazards |
increased use of private transport → edge of town areas are more accessible | located near city centre as it's close to jobs and they cannot commute from outer areas (live in overcrowded rooms as rent is expensive) |
may resist development of socially affordable housing / move to outer suburbs if this happens | |
can choose where they live and are more willing to pay for the housing → occupy higher-quality land ⇒ private developments prefer this |
Ethnic groups choose to live together for bonding and people to rely on (+ve segregation)
-ve segregation: certain groups excluded from certain areas (legally) - apartheid
Multiracial policy of locating all racial groups target on housing estate for racial harmony
Planning to achieve a balanced social mix (housing types and people)
People in rich neighborhoods may resist development of socially affordable housing / move to outer suburbs if this happens
Priv developments favor the rich: can choose where they live and are more willing to pay for the housing → occupy higher-quality land
Urban Poverty, Deprivation and Informal Activity in Urban Areas:
Deprivation can be measured through physical, social, economic and political indices
Slum: group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area lacking ≥ 1: durable housing (protection from extreme climatic conditions), sufficient living space (max 3 in a room), access to improved water (sufficient, affordable, obtained w/o extreme effort), access to sanitation facilities, secure tenure (protection against forced eviction)
Dual Economy: mix of formal (foreign owned, more elite) and informal economic activity (small scale, labor intensive, locally owned)
Bazaar Economy: small trade and service establishments (family enterprises) - intense competition keeps prices low and supports a low standard of living
Street Economy: low earnings and standard of living (street hawkers, beggars, prostitutes)
Informal economy relieves the economic problems of the poor by using their energy and small-scale assistance to improve circumstances
Informal economy allows exploitation of the poor by the rich (cheap labor to keep cost of production down)
Understanding the spatial organization of cities is essential for analyzing the urban environment. Urban patterns and land use are influenced by historical, social, and economic factors.
Key Concepts:
Land Use Zones: Areas within a city with specific functions, such as residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational zones.
Central Business District (CBD): The core of a city, usually characterized by high-density commercial and office buildings.
Residential Areas: Spaces dedicated to housing and accommodation.
Industrial Zones: Areas designated for manufacturing and industrial activities.
Urban Patterns:
Concentric Zone Model: Developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess, this model envisions a city with concentric rings, each representing different land use zones.
Sector Model: Proposed by Homer Hoyt, this model suggests that cities develop in pie-shaped sectors based on transportation routes.
Multiple Nuclei Model: Developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman, this model argues that cities have multiple centres of development.
Challenges of Urban Land Use:
Urban Sprawl: The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural landscapes.
Gentrification: The transformation of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.
Urbanization, Natural Increase and Population Movements
Increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas caused by rural-to-urban migration, higher rates of natural increase in urban areas, reclassification of rural areas as urban ones
Cycle of urbanization, suburbanization, counter-urbanization and re-urbanization
Natural increase & birth rates
Rural-Urban Migration: movement of people away from countryside to towns and cities (people believe they're better off in urban areas)
Push and pull factors
Gentrification: reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas (residential and commercial areas)
Social displacement of poor people: house prices rise poor cannot afford and move out → young mobile population takes their place
Re-Urbanization: revitalization of urban areas and a movement of people back into these areas
Suburbanization: outward expansion of towns and cities (town extensions and increased scope of public transport)
Low IR → lower cost of living + willingness of local authorities to provide utilities - improved public transport → expansion of building societies
Counter-Urbanization: movement of population away from larger urban areas to smaller and newer towns on the edge of city limits
Due to high land price and crime rate, congestion, pollution, lack of community and declining services in urban areas
Urban Sprawl: uncontrolled growth of urban areas at their edges (prevented by green belts)
Urban system growth → increased need to provide access to clean water, sanitation and waste disposal → increase risk of diseases and burden on authorities
Expand transport facilities and telecom networks to attract new economic activity and match pop growth w/ infrastructure growth
The Causes and Consequences of Urban Deindustrialization
Long-term decline in employment in the manufacturing sectors of an economy → job loss
+ve: industries reduce workforce to increase productivity thru rationalization and mechanization → more competitive
Overseas competition from newly industrialized countries (NIC)/introduction of rival product → fall in DD → rationalization (cost cutting and decrease labor → unemployment)
Exhaustion of resources → increasing costs of raw materials/lack of capital - automation and new tech take over
Removal of subsidy/imposition of tax → higher COP (lay off workers to maintain profit)
Gains in service sector but cannot compensate for manufacturing loss
New jobs (part-time and low paid) mostly taken by women - older firms → less competitive and less innovative (unskilled labor)
Areas of disinvestment (massive outflows of capital and labor - filled by commuters from outside the city areas)
Reindustrialization: growth of high-tech industries, small firms and services
The rapid growth of cities presents numerous challenges that require innovative solutions. Understanding these challenges is crucial for sustainable urban development.
Key Concepts:
Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Infrastructure: The fundamental facilities and systems serving a city, including transportation, water supply, and energy networks.
Challenges:
Traffic Congestion: The result of increased urbanization, inadequate transportation systems, and a growing number of vehicles.
Housing Shortages: High demand for housing can lead to shortages and increased prices.
Environmental Degradation: Urbanization often results in pollution, deforestation, and habitat loss.
Social Inequality: Disparities in income and access to resources can lead to social unrest.
Solutions:
Smart Cities: Integration of technology to improve the efficiency of urban services.
Mixed-Use Development: Combining residential, commercial, and recreational spaces to reduce the need for extensive transportation.
Green Infrastructure: Incorporating natural elements into urban planning to promote environmental sustainability.
Urban Microclimates
Structure of air above urban area and structure of the urban surface
Radiation and sunshine: industrial haze → reduced visibility ; greater scattering of soil water retention by dust & higher absorption of longer waves due to surfaces & CO2 → more diffuse sky radiation
Also heat produced by human activity
Summer: higher incidence of thicker cloud cover vs winter - increased convection and air
Pollution: higher incidence of radiation fog and smog
Concentration of hygroscopic particles increased condensation + higher day temps
Urban pollution and photochemical smog trap outgg radiant energy
Temperature: more heat energy retention and release → heat islands ; heating from below → increased air mass instability overhead ; big local contrasts btw sunny and shaded surfaces
Pressure and winds: severe gusting and turbulence around tall buildings → strong local pressure gradients from windward to leeward walls; canyon effect: deep, narrow streets are much calmer
Turbulence of air may be reduced overall
Higher building height and urban surface roughness → lower wind speed
Lack of avail moisture and higher temp: decrease in RH
Greater instability and stronger convection above built-up areas → higher incidence of thunder and more intense storms & less snowfall and briefer covers
Burning fossil fuels (domestic & commercial use): exceed energy inputs from sun
Buildings have a lower albedo: higher capacity to retain and conduct heat
Surface character, rapid drainage and lower wind speed: reduction in heat required for evapo(transpi)ration
Also changes airflow patterns → reduction of heat diffusion
Fewer open H2O bodies → less evaporation and plants → less transpiration
Urban area is warmer than surrounding rural area especially by dawn during anticyclonic conditions (calm, high pressure)
Develop pollution dome w/ cooler air above it that prevents pollutants from dispersing (day: prevent incoming radiation, night: prevent LWR from escaping → small temp diff)
Air Pollution Patterns
Pop growth in urban areas → industrial development energy and heating → increased air pollution → increase in no. of vehicles and DD for
Indoor air pollution: burning of firewood and paraffin (DCs) for cooking and heating as they do not have as much resources to cope w/ pop growth and provide services
LICs and NICs: weaker economies → minimal I in pollution control + use cheap, inefficient energy resources and cannot tackle air pollution effectively
Worsened by expanding car industries for ED (increased private car ownership)
Roads are also in a poor state which reduces the quality of vehicles
Pollution Management Strategies
Use more energy-efficient tech, public transport, car pooling schemes, cycling/walking → burn less fossil fuels
Use catalytic converters (reduce emissions of NOx)
Raise enforcement of emission standards (cheaper to lower emissions than clean up pollution)
Green spaces can reduce the effects of urban heat island (increased evapotranspiration → lower temperature → lower energy use), noise levels and air pollution
Tree shade has great cooling potential and improves air quality
Traffic Congestion Patterns, Trends and Impacts
More congested on weekdays, start of sch year, festivals and national holidays
Weekdays: morning and evening peak
Noise disturbance may cause people to move due to its associated health risks
Contested Land
2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics: property boom in central favelas (drug gangs eliminated) displaced people for games-related purposes
Occupy movement: anti-capitalist protests to bring attention to the huge profits and inequalities generated by the financial services
Dharavi, Mumbai: connected by all railways and is a potential intl business destination → could be developed into a financial/service district but would displace 1m ppl
Slum: means of escaping poverty, home to thousands of micro-industries → attracts labor due to large informal economy
Depletion of Urban Green Spaces
Green spaces have little economic value and are not favored by developers yet is impt for physical and mental well-being
Increased thru compensatory afforestation projs but does not serve to decrease air or noise pollution (QOL factors)
Urban Crime
Crime hotspots: residential areas w/ lack of health centres, schs, recreational areas and police stations → easy access and lack of security
Areas w/ high no.s of offenders and crime targets commit crimes → increase incentive and ability to
Increase surveillance (more police officers on patrol and more CCTV use):
Improved street lighting and buildings designed to reduce dark areas
More taxi services during closing time of clubs and women-only taxis
Adopt a 0-tolerance policy towards crime
The future of urbanization is shaped by ongoing trends and emerging challenges. Analyzing these trends allows for proactive planning and sustainable development.
Key Concepts:
Megacities: Extremely large cities with populations exceeding 10 million people.
Rural-Urban Continuum: The idea that rural and urban areas exist on a continuum rather than as distinct entities.
Challenges to Address:
Overpopulation: Managing the strain on resources and infrastructure caused by rapid population growth.
Digital Divide: Ensuring equitable access to technology and information in urban areas.
Resilience Planning: Developing strategies to withstand and recover from natural disasters and other shocks.
Future Trends:
Smart Urbanization: Continued integration of technology to enhance urban services and improve quality of life.
Climate Change Adaptation: Cities must adapt to changing climatic conditions, including rising sea levels and extreme weather events.
Rural Revitalization: Efforts to balance urbanization by promoting development in rural areas.
Understanding the multifaceted nature of urban environments is essential for informed decision-making and sustainable development in an increasingly urbanized world.
Resilient City Design:
Cities are productive, innovative and trading centres that benefit from EOS and experience rapid pop growth
Also manifest major inequalities and deal with air and H2O pollution, congestion and inflated land prices)
Properly functioning transport network and energy, H2O and waste infrastructure for social mobility (reduce ecological footprint and vulnerability to pollution)
Dense population: less CO2/capita and higher potential for public transport → savings in heating and cooling as emissions/person decrease
Minimize travel dist→ use less space and infrastructure → reduce urban sprawl
Reliable SS of clean H2O and housing at an affordable and acceptable level
Clean up derelict sites to create more open spaces
Generating energy from waste (sell electricity back to urban grid): don't waste landfills
Prepare for intensified and more frequent weather events to reduce impact and recovery cost
Safer buildings and zoning (prevent building in unsafe areas), maintenance of sea walls and make the change to adopt cleaner energy
Eco-City Design
Eco-city: minimal environmental impact
Conserving non-renewables (reduce fossil fuels) and using more renewables → maintain acceptable waste production levels
Provide sufficient green spaces by reusing and reclaiming land
Encourage active involvement of the local community
Beddington 0 Energy Development (BedZED): environmentally friendly housing development in London - lower car mileage, space-heating requirements, hot H2O consumption, mains H2O consumption and electric power
C40: address climate change by working tgt to share technical expertise and best practice
Improve public transport, make infrastructure and H2O SS more reliable and efficient and more efficient outdoor lighting (lower energy consumption), make homes and offices more energy-efficient (save $ and the environment)
Consider social equity so that low-income communities can benefit as well
Bolivia's cable cars (El Alto - La Paz): affordable public transport route over a winding, congested highway
Helsinki and Hamburg: people powered mobility → provide cheap, flexible and well coordinated transport system that's competitive w/ private car ownership + increase pedestrian and cycle paths to eliminate the need for cars
Smartphone app: journey planner and payment mtd (limit users)
Smart Cities
City that is performing well in the economy, environment, people, governance, mobility and living conditions → I in social, human and physical capital (incl ICT) → sustainable development and high QOL
Good way to manage resources avail to the city (rising pop and dwindling resources)
Increased reliance on availability and quality of infocom tech and social infrastructure (intelligence and skills for urban competitiveness) → high proportion of educated workers
Need not be entirely new: can be readapted and upgraded from existing cities
Urbanization is the process of population concentration into cities.
This phenomenon has been a defining characteristic of human development over the last century.
Understanding the factors that drive urbanization is crucial for comprehending the challenges and opportunities posed by the urban environment.
Key Concepts:
Urbanization:
The increasing concentration of populations in urban areas.
Rural-Urban Migration:
The movement of people from rural areas to urban centres.
Push and Pull Factors:
Forces that encourage people to leave rural areas (push) and attract them to urban areas (pull).
Causes of Urbanization:
Industrialization:
The shift from agrarian economies to industrialized societies often leads to the growth of urban centres.
Employment Opportunities:
Cities offer diverse job opportunities, drawing people seeking employment.
Technological Advancements:
Improved transportation and communication contribute to increased urbanisation
Urbanization:
Site: actual land on which a settlement is built; situation: r/s w/ its surroundings
Desirability enhanced with physical, social and economic factors (esp w/ industrialization and trade)
Industrial, service (recreation or transport)/residential role (incl open space) can change in proportion over time
Agricultural roles → steadily diminished in urban areas
Mostly in rural areas where population density is low
Industrialized areas with good access to resources
develop to become cities
Vertical Zoning: same building is used for 1 function:1 floor and another function on another floor to make up for the lack of space in urban areas
Range: max distance people are prepared to travel for G&S
Threshold: minimum number of people required for a G&S to stay in business
Sphere of Influence: area served by a settlement
Low-Order Goods: necessities (need only a small hamlet - dispersed, individual households w/small population to support) → limited range
High-Order Goods: luxuries (shared by a few villages due to specialization) → larger population
Conurbation: ≥ 2 cities merge, millionaire city & megacity,
Metacity: large-scale city regions
Megalopolis: cities sprawl and merge into 1
Large urban areas provide large number of high-order and low-order goods to a large population
Megacities:
Dominated by young adults (migrate searching for jobs) → high birth rates
Rapid EG and urbanization → large generation of wealth and large scale of environmental impacts new forms of planning and management to cope
Urban Growth and Economic Development:
Correlation between urban growth and ED
Commercial, industrial, political, administral and social function
Stimulus for development, EOS for health and education, ethnic, tribal and religious intermixing → weaken ties to traditional rural beliefs and customs
Cannot cope w/ growing population
high rates of unemployment
overloaded & overcrowded
transport systems
air, water and noise pollution
insufficient housing, sanitation and water supplies
deteriorating infrastructure and shortfalls in service delivery
Growing inequalities in access to infrastructure and services due to income gap → increased prevalence of social problems
Many health issues occur as an indirect impact ⇒ decline in quality of life
Urban Settlement Functions:
Trade and comms, mining and industrial areas, tourist resorts, govt services and high-tech industries (administrative center)
Settlements in favored areas have greater growth potential and a greater range of services and functions (may change over time)
Lowland coastal plains w/ links inland
Vance: development of settlements occurred as a result of trade interactions (external influences → centers of innovation for external commercial forces
Losch: cities grow due to transport accessibility that plays a large role in efficiency and can produce corridors or urban areas
Build new towns and new capital cities to deflect growth to accommodate the overspill population and ease chronic overcrowding + redistribute the state's wealth
Relocation of people to ensure their environment for living and working is ideal
Factors of Urban Economic Activity Patterns:
Bid-Rent Theory: limited land at the city centre that is most expensive as it's the most accessible land to public transport
Secondary peaks at intersections of main roads and ring roads (multi nuclei) & increased use of private transport in inner city areas
Low-Order Goods: neighborhood stores and shopping parades (shop clusters)
High-Order Goods: high street shops, dept stores
Out-of-Town Superstores and Retail Parks: large outlets close to residential areas
Congestion and inflated land price in city center → sub & counter-urbanization (increased accessibility to these sites) of more affluent households
Changes:
Economic change → more women in paid work → increased standard of living & car ownership
Demographic change → smaller households, more elderly → online shopping
Tech change→ more families own deep freezers (don't need to shop daily)
closure of high street shops due to changes in shopping habits (govt policies to revitalize retailing in central areas & inner-city redevelopment) - e.g. traffic-free zones
Leads to decentralization of other commercial activity and business parks in suburban sites
Central Business Districts: commercial and economic core of a city (coincides with/ place of peak land value)
Industrial Zones: inner-city areas and brownfield suburban sites (near airports) away from residential areas (pollution)
Those needing skilled labor, access to CBD and urban market for distribution
Cities are major centers of innovation, ideas and fashion → manufacturing centers + access to international market through a variety of labor (skilled and unskilled) → large markets
Planning urban economic activities: restrict development in particular areas (pollution)
Factors Affecting Location of Urban Areas:
Rich | Poor |
places with/ pleasant views and offer recreational activities → high ground that's safe and building standards account for risks | forced to live in areas of steep relief and be at risk of mass movements (informal housing) not protected against hazards |
increased use of private transport → edge of town areas are more accessible | located near city centre as it's close to jobs and they cannot commute from outer areas (live in overcrowded rooms as rent is expensive) |
may resist development of socially affordable housing / move to outer suburbs if this happens | |
can choose where they live and are more willing to pay for the housing → occupy higher-quality land ⇒ private developments prefer this |
Ethnic groups choose to live together for bonding and people to rely on (+ve segregation)
-ve segregation: certain groups excluded from certain areas (legally) - apartheid
Multiracial policy of locating all racial groups target on housing estate for racial harmony
Planning to achieve a balanced social mix (housing types and people)
People in rich neighborhoods may resist development of socially affordable housing / move to outer suburbs if this happens
Priv developments favor the rich: can choose where they live and are more willing to pay for the housing → occupy higher-quality land
Urban Poverty, Deprivation and Informal Activity in Urban Areas:
Deprivation can be measured through physical, social, economic and political indices
Slum: group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area lacking ≥ 1: durable housing (protection from extreme climatic conditions), sufficient living space (max 3 in a room), access to improved water (sufficient, affordable, obtained w/o extreme effort), access to sanitation facilities, secure tenure (protection against forced eviction)
Dual Economy: mix of formal (foreign owned, more elite) and informal economic activity (small scale, labor intensive, locally owned)
Bazaar Economy: small trade and service establishments (family enterprises) - intense competition keeps prices low and supports a low standard of living
Street Economy: low earnings and standard of living (street hawkers, beggars, prostitutes)
Informal economy relieves the economic problems of the poor by using their energy and small-scale assistance to improve circumstances
Informal economy allows exploitation of the poor by the rich (cheap labor to keep cost of production down)
Understanding the spatial organization of cities is essential for analyzing the urban environment. Urban patterns and land use are influenced by historical, social, and economic factors.
Key Concepts:
Land Use Zones: Areas within a city with specific functions, such as residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational zones.
Central Business District (CBD): The core of a city, usually characterized by high-density commercial and office buildings.
Residential Areas: Spaces dedicated to housing and accommodation.
Industrial Zones: Areas designated for manufacturing and industrial activities.
Urban Patterns:
Concentric Zone Model: Developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess, this model envisions a city with concentric rings, each representing different land use zones.
Sector Model: Proposed by Homer Hoyt, this model suggests that cities develop in pie-shaped sectors based on transportation routes.
Multiple Nuclei Model: Developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman, this model argues that cities have multiple centres of development.
Challenges of Urban Land Use:
Urban Sprawl: The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural landscapes.
Gentrification: The transformation of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.
Urbanization, Natural Increase and Population Movements
Increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas caused by rural-to-urban migration, higher rates of natural increase in urban areas, reclassification of rural areas as urban ones
Cycle of urbanization, suburbanization, counter-urbanization and re-urbanization
Natural increase & birth rates
Rural-Urban Migration: movement of people away from countryside to towns and cities (people believe they're better off in urban areas)
Push and pull factors
Gentrification: reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas (residential and commercial areas)
Social displacement of poor people: house prices rise poor cannot afford and move out → young mobile population takes their place
Re-Urbanization: revitalization of urban areas and a movement of people back into these areas
Suburbanization: outward expansion of towns and cities (town extensions and increased scope of public transport)
Low IR → lower cost of living + willingness of local authorities to provide utilities - improved public transport → expansion of building societies
Counter-Urbanization: movement of population away from larger urban areas to smaller and newer towns on the edge of city limits
Due to high land price and crime rate, congestion, pollution, lack of community and declining services in urban areas
Urban Sprawl: uncontrolled growth of urban areas at their edges (prevented by green belts)
Urban system growth → increased need to provide access to clean water, sanitation and waste disposal → increase risk of diseases and burden on authorities
Expand transport facilities and telecom networks to attract new economic activity and match pop growth w/ infrastructure growth
The Causes and Consequences of Urban Deindustrialization
Long-term decline in employment in the manufacturing sectors of an economy → job loss
+ve: industries reduce workforce to increase productivity thru rationalization and mechanization → more competitive
Overseas competition from newly industrialized countries (NIC)/introduction of rival product → fall in DD → rationalization (cost cutting and decrease labor → unemployment)
Exhaustion of resources → increasing costs of raw materials/lack of capital - automation and new tech take over
Removal of subsidy/imposition of tax → higher COP (lay off workers to maintain profit)
Gains in service sector but cannot compensate for manufacturing loss
New jobs (part-time and low paid) mostly taken by women - older firms → less competitive and less innovative (unskilled labor)
Areas of disinvestment (massive outflows of capital and labor - filled by commuters from outside the city areas)
Reindustrialization: growth of high-tech industries, small firms and services
The rapid growth of cities presents numerous challenges that require innovative solutions. Understanding these challenges is crucial for sustainable urban development.
Key Concepts:
Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Infrastructure: The fundamental facilities and systems serving a city, including transportation, water supply, and energy networks.
Challenges:
Traffic Congestion: The result of increased urbanization, inadequate transportation systems, and a growing number of vehicles.
Housing Shortages: High demand for housing can lead to shortages and increased prices.
Environmental Degradation: Urbanization often results in pollution, deforestation, and habitat loss.
Social Inequality: Disparities in income and access to resources can lead to social unrest.
Solutions:
Smart Cities: Integration of technology to improve the efficiency of urban services.
Mixed-Use Development: Combining residential, commercial, and recreational spaces to reduce the need for extensive transportation.
Green Infrastructure: Incorporating natural elements into urban planning to promote environmental sustainability.
Urban Microclimates
Structure of air above urban area and structure of the urban surface
Radiation and sunshine: industrial haze → reduced visibility ; greater scattering of soil water retention by dust & higher absorption of longer waves due to surfaces & CO2 → more diffuse sky radiation
Also heat produced by human activity
Summer: higher incidence of thicker cloud cover vs winter - increased convection and air
Pollution: higher incidence of radiation fog and smog
Concentration of hygroscopic particles increased condensation + higher day temps
Urban pollution and photochemical smog trap outgg radiant energy
Temperature: more heat energy retention and release → heat islands ; heating from below → increased air mass instability overhead ; big local contrasts btw sunny and shaded surfaces
Pressure and winds: severe gusting and turbulence around tall buildings → strong local pressure gradients from windward to leeward walls; canyon effect: deep, narrow streets are much calmer
Turbulence of air may be reduced overall
Higher building height and urban surface roughness → lower wind speed
Lack of avail moisture and higher temp: decrease in RH
Greater instability and stronger convection above built-up areas → higher incidence of thunder and more intense storms & less snowfall and briefer covers
Burning fossil fuels (domestic & commercial use): exceed energy inputs from sun
Buildings have a lower albedo: higher capacity to retain and conduct heat
Surface character, rapid drainage and lower wind speed: reduction in heat required for evapo(transpi)ration
Also changes airflow patterns → reduction of heat diffusion
Fewer open H2O bodies → less evaporation and plants → less transpiration
Urban area is warmer than surrounding rural area especially by dawn during anticyclonic conditions (calm, high pressure)
Develop pollution dome w/ cooler air above it that prevents pollutants from dispersing (day: prevent incoming radiation, night: prevent LWR from escaping → small temp diff)
Air Pollution Patterns
Pop growth in urban areas → industrial development energy and heating → increased air pollution → increase in no. of vehicles and DD for
Indoor air pollution: burning of firewood and paraffin (DCs) for cooking and heating as they do not have as much resources to cope w/ pop growth and provide services
LICs and NICs: weaker economies → minimal I in pollution control + use cheap, inefficient energy resources and cannot tackle air pollution effectively
Worsened by expanding car industries for ED (increased private car ownership)
Roads are also in a poor state which reduces the quality of vehicles
Pollution Management Strategies
Use more energy-efficient tech, public transport, car pooling schemes, cycling/walking → burn less fossil fuels
Use catalytic converters (reduce emissions of NOx)
Raise enforcement of emission standards (cheaper to lower emissions than clean up pollution)
Green spaces can reduce the effects of urban heat island (increased evapotranspiration → lower temperature → lower energy use), noise levels and air pollution
Tree shade has great cooling potential and improves air quality
Traffic Congestion Patterns, Trends and Impacts
More congested on weekdays, start of sch year, festivals and national holidays
Weekdays: morning and evening peak
Noise disturbance may cause people to move due to its associated health risks
Contested Land
2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics: property boom in central favelas (drug gangs eliminated) displaced people for games-related purposes
Occupy movement: anti-capitalist protests to bring attention to the huge profits and inequalities generated by the financial services
Dharavi, Mumbai: connected by all railways and is a potential intl business destination → could be developed into a financial/service district but would displace 1m ppl
Slum: means of escaping poverty, home to thousands of micro-industries → attracts labor due to large informal economy
Depletion of Urban Green Spaces
Green spaces have little economic value and are not favored by developers yet is impt for physical and mental well-being
Increased thru compensatory afforestation projs but does not serve to decrease air or noise pollution (QOL factors)
Urban Crime
Crime hotspots: residential areas w/ lack of health centres, schs, recreational areas and police stations → easy access and lack of security
Areas w/ high no.s of offenders and crime targets commit crimes → increase incentive and ability to
Increase surveillance (more police officers on patrol and more CCTV use):
Improved street lighting and buildings designed to reduce dark areas
More taxi services during closing time of clubs and women-only taxis
Adopt a 0-tolerance policy towards crime
The future of urbanization is shaped by ongoing trends and emerging challenges. Analyzing these trends allows for proactive planning and sustainable development.
Key Concepts:
Megacities: Extremely large cities with populations exceeding 10 million people.
Rural-Urban Continuum: The idea that rural and urban areas exist on a continuum rather than as distinct entities.
Challenges to Address:
Overpopulation: Managing the strain on resources and infrastructure caused by rapid population growth.
Digital Divide: Ensuring equitable access to technology and information in urban areas.
Resilience Planning: Developing strategies to withstand and recover from natural disasters and other shocks.
Future Trends:
Smart Urbanization: Continued integration of technology to enhance urban services and improve quality of life.
Climate Change Adaptation: Cities must adapt to changing climatic conditions, including rising sea levels and extreme weather events.
Rural Revitalization: Efforts to balance urbanization by promoting development in rural areas.
Understanding the multifaceted nature of urban environments is essential for informed decision-making and sustainable development in an increasingly urbanized world.
Resilient City Design:
Cities are productive, innovative and trading centres that benefit from EOS and experience rapid pop growth
Also manifest major inequalities and deal with air and H2O pollution, congestion and inflated land prices)
Properly functioning transport network and energy, H2O and waste infrastructure for social mobility (reduce ecological footprint and vulnerability to pollution)
Dense population: less CO2/capita and higher potential for public transport → savings in heating and cooling as emissions/person decrease
Minimize travel dist→ use less space and infrastructure → reduce urban sprawl
Reliable SS of clean H2O and housing at an affordable and acceptable level
Clean up derelict sites to create more open spaces
Generating energy from waste (sell electricity back to urban grid): don't waste landfills
Prepare for intensified and more frequent weather events to reduce impact and recovery cost
Safer buildings and zoning (prevent building in unsafe areas), maintenance of sea walls and make the change to adopt cleaner energy
Eco-City Design
Eco-city: minimal environmental impact
Conserving non-renewables (reduce fossil fuels) and using more renewables → maintain acceptable waste production levels
Provide sufficient green spaces by reusing and reclaiming land
Encourage active involvement of the local community
Beddington 0 Energy Development (BedZED): environmentally friendly housing development in London - lower car mileage, space-heating requirements, hot H2O consumption, mains H2O consumption and electric power
C40: address climate change by working tgt to share technical expertise and best practice
Improve public transport, make infrastructure and H2O SS more reliable and efficient and more efficient outdoor lighting (lower energy consumption), make homes and offices more energy-efficient (save $ and the environment)
Consider social equity so that low-income communities can benefit as well
Bolivia's cable cars (El Alto - La Paz): affordable public transport route over a winding, congested highway
Helsinki and Hamburg: people powered mobility → provide cheap, flexible and well coordinated transport system that's competitive w/ private car ownership + increase pedestrian and cycle paths to eliminate the need for cars
Smartphone app: journey planner and payment mtd (limit users)
Smart Cities
City that is performing well in the economy, environment, people, governance, mobility and living conditions → I in social, human and physical capital (incl ICT) → sustainable development and high QOL
Good way to manage resources avail to the city (rising pop and dwindling resources)
Increased reliance on availability and quality of infocom tech and social infrastructure (intelligence and skills for urban competitiveness) → high proportion of educated workers
Need not be entirely new: can be readapted and upgraded from existing cities