Theme 2- CH 2 Political and Economic History: How Inscriptions Tell a Story

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts and events related to Bhakti and Sufi traditions in Indian history.

What dual process marked the integration of local cults into Puranic traditions?

Sanskritisation of local deities and incorporation of local myths into Brahmanical frameworks.

How does the Jagannatha cult in Puri reflect syncretism in religious traditions?

Tribal deity assimilated into Vaishnava iconography, worshipped as Vishnu's avatar.

Why did Vedic deities like Indra lose prominence in later Puranic traditions?

Shift towards devotional gods like Vishnu and Shiva who offered personal salvation.

How did Tantric practices challenge Brahmanical orthodoxy?

Rejected ritual purity and caste restrictions; emphasised female deities and esoteric knowledge.

What distinguishes 'great' and 'little' traditions in early Indian religion?

Great traditions were Sanskritic and pan-Indian; little traditions were local, oral, and popular.

How did the Puranas democratise religious access?

Written in regional languages with narratives accessible to the masses.

Why are oral compositions by Bhakti poets historically significant?

Enabled mass spiritual participation and critiqued elite ritualism and caste.

What is a key limitation in using hagiographies as historical sources?

Tend to be devotional and exaggerated, lacking chronological accuracy.

How did Alvars and Nayanars defy Brahmanical caste hierarchies?

Included saints from lower castes and rejected Vedic exclusivity.

What is the status of Nalayira Divyaprabandham in Tamil Vaishnavism?

Considered the Tamil Veda, equated with Sanskrit Vedas by devotees.

How did Andal challenge gender norms in Bhakti traditions?

Claimed mystical marriage to Vishnu, expressing spiritual autonomy.

What drove the Alvar-Nayanar hostility towards Buddhism and Jainism?

Seen as heterodox threats to temple-based Bhakti and Brahmanical revival.

How did Chola rulers use Bhakti to legitimise political power?

Built grand temples and patronised Shaiva saints to assert divine sanction.

Why were Shaiva and Vaishnava temples politically significant under Cholas?

Became power centres for royal rituals, land grants, and social control.

What is the core difference between saguna and nirguna Bhakti?

Saguna worships deity with form; nirguna emphasises formless, abstract divinity.

How did Basavanna’s vachanas challenge caste ideology?

Rejected Brahmanical rituals; emphasised devotion and equality.

What was radical about Lingayat funerary customs?

Rejected cremation and Brahmanical death rites; buried devotees with personal linga.

What socio-economic group was vital in the growth of early Bhakti in Karnataka?

Artisans and traders, who found spiritual egalitarianism appealing.

Why did Bhakti emerge earlier in Tamil Nadu than in north India?

Strong local devotional traditions and lesser Brahmanical rigidity.

What did Nath and Siddha traditions reject in mainstream religiosity?

Caste, ritual purity, and idol worship; focused on yoga and inner realisation.

How did Islamic rulers classify Hindus, and what was the legal implication?

As zimmis — protected but taxed under jizya for non-Muslims.

How did Indian mosque architecture reflect local influence?

Used existing temple materials and regional styles in mosque construction.

How were matrilineal traditions accommodated by Islam on the Malabar coast?

Muslim practices adapted to local customs like matrilocal residence.

What is the significance of Ismaili ginans in Indian Islam?

Composed in local languages blending Islamic theology with Bhakti idioms.

Why wasn’t shari‘a uniformly enforced in the Delhi Sultanate?

Political pragmatism and local customs led to flexible administration.

How did practices like ziyarat and sama‘ enable Sufis to connect with diverse communities?

Provided shared spiritual experiences beyond rigid religious boundaries, fostering syncretism.

Why did Akbar’s repeated visits to Ajmer Dargah hold political significance?

Reinforced legitimacy through association with Chishti saints and divine intercession.

How did Mughal dargah patronage influence rural-urban cultural flows?

Dargahs became centres of pilgrimage, drawing people across classes and geographies.

What theological principle distinguished Chishti sufis from be-shari‘a groups?

Chishtis adhered to shari‘a while embracing mystical practices; be-shari‘a rejected legalism.

How did Amir Khusrau’s musical innovations bridge Islamic and Indic traditions?

Introduced Persian elements into Indian ragas; pioneered qawwali blending sufi and vernacular styles.

In what way did Dakhani Sufism differ from North Indian traditions?

Heavily influenced by regional languages and folk motifs; fused Deccani culture with mysticism.

Why did sufis like Nizamuddin Auliya keep distance from state patronage yet accept royal offerings?

Maintained spiritual autonomy while utilising resources for charitable and religious outreach.

How did khanqahs function as alternative socio-religious institutions?

Offered food, shelter, education, and spiritual guidance, especially to the marginalised.

Why did the ulema often oppose popular sufi practices like shrine worship?

Considered them un-Islamic innovations (bida‘at) deviating from pure doctrine.

How did women participate in Bhakti and Sufi spaces despite patriarchal limitations?

Through devotional singing, oral transmission, private rituals, and saint veneration.

How did Mirabai’s rejection of royal life reinforce her Bhakti stance?

Symbolised detachment from worldly duties and caste, affirming love for veneration.

What does the inclusion of Kabir, Ravidas, and Baba Farid in the Adi Granth reflect about Sikhism’s formation?

Syncretic foundation combining Nirguna Bhakti, egalitarianism, and anti-ritualism.

How did Kabir’s ulatbansi compositions subvert conventional theological reasoning?

Used paradox and riddles to question religious dogma and provoke introspection.

Why did Kabir challenge both Brahmanical and Islamic orthodoxy simultaneously?

Viewed both as entangled in hollow rituals, ignoring true devotion and inner purity.

What philosophical stance underpinned Kabir’s rejection of temple and mosque worship?

Belief in formless god accessible through internal realisation, not institutions.

How does the lack of a fixed biography for Kabir reflect his transcendence of sectarian boundaries?

Multiple traditions claimed him, reflecting his universal appeal and contested legacy.

In what way did Guru Nanak’s emphasis on nam-simaran redefine religiosity?

Made remembrance of the divine central to ethical living, beyond ritual or clergy.

Why did Guru Nanak reject both Vedic and Quranic ritualism?

Critiqued their externalism; stressed inner devotion, truth, and honest living.

What institutional innovation helped transform early Sikhism into a community?

Establishment of Sangat and Guru lineage for doctrinal unity and social cohesion.

What was the impact of Guru Gobind Singh’s creation of the Khalsa on Sikh identity?

Militarised Sikhism, institutionalised discipline, and formalised collective identity.

What does the regional spread of Mirabai’s bhajans suggest about vernacular devotional networks?

Oral traditions allowed cross-regional reach, resonating with women and lower castes.

Despite their devotional content, why are Bhakti-Sufi compositions historically valuable?

Reveal popular worldviews, social tensions, and alternate narratives to state-centric histories.

How do malfuzat and maktubat deepen understanding of sufi spiritual and everyday concerns?

Offer discourses and correspondence on mystical experience, politics, ethics, and society.

What critical lens should be applied to hagiographies and tazkiras in historical reconstruction?

Must distinguish mythic elements from contextually grounded events and social facts.

How do contemporary Bhakti-Sufi practices challenge the notion of these being historical relics?

They are living traditions, continuously evolving through local reinterpretations and performances.