Untitled Flashcards Set

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Science

A systematic, evidence‐based method for investigating natural phenomena.

Behavior

Observable actions and responses of organisms.

Mental processes

Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and memories.

Critical thinking

The careful, objective evaluation of information that helps in making better decisions by questioning assumptions and evidence.

Empirical method

A systematic approach that involves collecting data through observation and experimentation to answer questions and test theories.

Wilhelm Wundt

Known as the 'father of modern psychology' for establishing the first psychology laboratory and experimental methods.

William James

A pioneering American psychologist and philosopher known for his work in functionalism and his book, 'The Principles of Psychology'.

Structuralism

Aims to break down mental processes into basic elements.

Functionalism

Focuses on the purpose and adaptive functions of behavior.

Biological/neuroscience approach

Emphasizes how brain processes, genetics, and physiology influence behavior.

Behavioral approach

Focuses on observable behavior and the role of environmental factors and learning in shaping actions.

Psychodynamic approach

Emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach.

Humanistic approach

Stresses individual potential, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Cognitive approach

Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem solving.

Evolutionary approach

Highlights how natural selection and adaptation influence behavior and mental processes.

Sociocultural approach

Examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior.

Biopsychosocial approach

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain behavior.

Variable

Any factor or condition that can change or be manipulated in a study.

Theory

A broad explanation for phenomena.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Operational definition

Specifies exactly how a variable or concept is measured or manipulated in research.

Descriptive research

Involves observing and describing behavior without manipulating variables.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or small group.

Correlational research

Studies the relationship between variables.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

Causation

Correlational research cannot prove this because it only shows that variables are related.

Experiment

Research method involving manipulation of one variable to observe its effect on another.

Random assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to reduce bias.

Independent variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable

The outcome that is measured in an experiment.

Experimental group

Group that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control group

Group that does not receive treatment and serves as a baseline.

Placebo

An inert substance used as a control in experiments.

Placebo effect

Real changes experienced by participants simply because they believe they are receiving treatment.

Population

The entire group of interest.

Sample

A subset of the population used in the study.

Random sample

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Naturalistic observation

Research method where behavior is observed in its natural setting without interference.

Francis Cecil Sumner, Ph.D.

The first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.

Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt.

Nervous system

Includes the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Central nervous system

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movements.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary functions.

Sympathetic nervous system

Triggers the 'fight-or-flight' response.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Promotes 'rest-and-digest' functions.

Stress

The body's reaction to demands or pressures.

Stressors

Events or conditions that cause stress.

Fight-or-flight response

Rapid response to danger that prepares the body for action.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information via electrical and chemical signals.

Dendrites

Receive signals in a neuron.

Cell body

Processes signals in a neuron.

Axon

Transmits the signal in a neuron.

Myelin sheath

Insulates the axon in a neuron.

Synapse

The gap where signals pass from one neuron to another.

Resting potential

The baseline state of a neuron.

Action potential

A rapid electrical impulse in a neuron.

All-or-nothing principle

A neuron either fires fully or not at all.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter aiding muscle movement.

GABA

A neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity.

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter that excites neurons.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that increases alertness.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that regulates reward and motivation.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter influencing mood.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that reduce pain.

Oxytocin

A neurotransmitter that facilitates bonding.

Agonist

Mimics or enhances a neurotransmitter’s action.

Antagonist

Blocks or dampens a neurotransmitter’s action.

Medulla

Controls vital autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, movement, and motor control.

Brain stem

Regulates basic life functions.

Reticular formation

Regulates arousal, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Limbic system

Involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

Amygdala

Processes emotions, especially fear.

Hippocampus

Critical for forming new memories.

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information.

Basal ganglia

Involved in regulating and coordinating movement.

Hypothalamus

Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormonal activity.

Cerebral cortex

Responsible for higher-order functions like reasoning and decision making.

Frontal lobe

Handles reasoning, planning, and movement.

Parietal lobe

Processes sensory input.

Temporal lobe

Manages auditory information and memory.

Occipital lobe

Processes visual data.

Somatosensory cortex

Processes touch and body sensations.

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary movements.

Corpus callosum

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Brenda Milner, Ph.D.

Pioneering neuropsychologist known for her research on memory.

Sensation

Detection of stimuli by sensory receptors.

Perception

Interpretation of sensory signals by the brain.

Bottom-up processing

Builds perception from individual sensory details.

Top-down processing

Uses prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.

Sensory receptors

Specialized cells that respond to specific stimuli.

Absolute threshold

Minimum level of stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus.

Difference threshold (just noticeable difference)

Smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected.

Signal detection theory

Explains how we discern a signal from background noise.

Selective attention

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.