Untitled Flashcards Set

What is the definition of psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What is science? Science is a systematic, evidence‐based method for investigating natural phenomena.

What is behavior? Behavior refers to observable actions and responses of organisms.

What are mental processes? Mental processes are internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and memories.

What is critical thinking? Critical thinking is the careful, objective evaluation of information that helps in making better decisions by questioning assumptions and evidence.

What is the empirical method? It is a systematic approach that involves collecting data through observation and experimentation to answer questions and test theories.

Who is Wilhelm Wundt? Wundt is known as the “father of modern psychology” for establishing the first psychology laboratory and experimental methods.

Who is William James? William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher known for his work in functionalism and his book, The Principles of Psychology.

What is the difference between structuralism and functionalism? Structuralism aimed to break down mental processes into basic elements, whereas functionalism focused on the purpose and adaptive functions of behavior.

What does the biological/neuroscience approach emphasize? It emphasizes how brain processes, genetics, and physiology influence behavior.

What does the behavioral approach emphasize? It focuses on observable behavior and the role of environmental factors and learning in shaping actions.

What does the psychodynamic approach emphasize and who is Sigmund Freud? It emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences; Sigmund Freud founded this approach and developed psychoanalysis.

What does the humanistic approach emphasize? It stresses individual potential, personal growth, and self-actualization.

What does the cognitive approach focus on? It examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem solving.

What does the evolutionary approach emphasize? It highlights how natural selection and adaptation influence behavior and mental processes.

What does the sociocultural approach focus on? It examines how social and cultural factors—including values, norms, and traditions—influence behavior; culture is the shared system of beliefs and practices (e.g., language, customs).

What is the biopsychosocial approach? It integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain behavior.

What is a variable? A variable is any factor or condition that can change or be manipulated in a study.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis, and which comes first? A theory is a broad explanation for phenomena, and a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from that theory; the theory comes first.

What is an operational definition? It specifies exactly how a variable or concept is measured or manipulated in research.

What is descriptive research and what types exist? Descriptive research involves observing and describing behavior without manipulating variables; types include case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation.

What is a case study? Provide an example. A case study is an in-depth analysis of an individual or small group, such as examining a unique psychological disorder in one person.

What is correlational research? Provide an example. Correlational research studies the relationship between variables—for example, examining the link between stress levels and sleep quality.

How do you interpret a correlation coefficient? It indicates the direction (positive or negative) and the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Why can’t correlational research prove causation? Because it only shows that variables are related; it does not determine which variable causes the change in the other.

What is an experiment? An experiment is a research method that involves manipulating one variable (independent) to observe its effect on another (dependent), while controlling other factors.

What does random assignment mean and why is it important? Random assignment is the process of placing participants into groups by chance, ensuring that each group is similar at the start and reducing bias.

What are the two types of variables in an experiment? They are the independent variable (manipulated) and the dependent variable (measured).

What is the difference between independent and dependent variables? The independent variable is controlled by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the outcome that is measured.

Who is in the experimental group and who is in the control group? The experimental group receives the treatment or manipulation, while the control group does not and serves as a baseline.

Why is it important to have both an experimental and a control group? It allows researchers to compare outcomes and determine whether changes are due to the treatment rather than other factors.

What is a placebo and what is the placebo effect? A placebo is an inert substance used as a control in experiments; the placebo effect occurs when participants experience real changes simply because they believe they are receiving treatment.

What is the difference between population and sample? The population is the entire group of interest, while a sample is a subset of that population used in the study.

What does it mean to have a random sample? It means every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, which helps ensure the sample represents the population.

What is naturalistic observation? It is a research method in which behavior is observed in its natural setting without interference.

Who is Francis Cecil Sumner, Ph.D. and what was his contribution? Dr. Sumner was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology and contributed to understanding racial issues within the field.

Chapter 2: The Brain and Behavior

What is plasticity and when is the brain more plastic? Plasticity is the brain’s ability to change and adapt; it is highest during childhood and intensive learning periods.

What are the major divisions of the nervous system? They are the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (all nerves outside the CNS).

Identify the two structures of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord.

What is the peripheral nervous system and its function? It connects the CNS to the rest of the body, transmitting sensory information and motor commands.

What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system? The somatic nervous system (voluntary control) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary control).

What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system and their functions? The sympathetic nervous system triggers the “fight-or-flight” response, and the parasympathetic nervous system promotes “rest-and-digest” functions.

What is stress? Stress is the body’s reaction to demands or pressures, which can be physical, mental, or emotional.

What are stressors? Provide examples. Stressors are events or conditions that cause stress (e.g., work deadlines, exams, relationship conflicts).

Explain the fight-or-flight response with examples. It is the body’s rapid response to danger—accelerating heart rate, releasing adrenaline—to prepare for action, such as increased alertness during an emergency.

Define neurons. Neurons are nerve cells that transmit information via electrical and chemical signals.

Define dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, and synapse. Dendrites receive signals; the cell body processes them; the axon transmits the signal; the myelin sheath insulates the axon; and the synapse is the gap where signals pass from one neuron to another.

What is the difference between resting potential, action potential, and the all-or-nothing principle? Resting potential is the neuron’s baseline state, an action potential is a rapid electrical impulse, and the all-or-nothing principle means a neuron either fires fully or not at all.

What are neurotransmitters and what are the functions of acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, endorphins, and oxytocin? Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals between neurons. Acetylcholine aids muscle movement; GABA inhibits neural activity; glutamate excites neurons; norepinephrine increases alertness; dopamine regulates reward and motivation; serotonin influences mood; endorphins reduce pain; oxytocin facilitates bonding.

What is the difference between an agonist and an antagonist? An agonist mimics or enhances a neurotransmitter’s action, while an antagonist blocks or dampens it.

What is the function of the medulla? It controls vital autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

What is the function of the cerebellum? It coordinates balance, movement, and motor control.

What is the function of the brain stem? It regulates basic life functions like heart rate, breathing, and sleep cycles.

What is the function of the reticular formation? It helps regulate arousal, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle.

What is the function of the limbic system? It is involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

What is the function of the amygdala and what happens if it is damaged? It processes emotions (especially fear); damage may impair the ability to experience or recognize emotions properly.

What is the role of the hippocampus and what can happen if it is damaged? The hippocampus is critical for forming new memories; damage can lead to memory loss or difficulties in learning new information.

What is the function of the thalamus? It acts as a relay station, channeling sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

What is the function of the basal ganglia? They are involved in regulating and coordinating movement.

What is the function of the hypothalamus? It maintains homeostasis by regulating body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormonal activity.

What is the cerebral cortex and what are its functions? It is the brain’s outer layer responsible for higher-order functions like reasoning, perception, and decision making.

Describe the main functions of the four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital). The frontal lobe handles reasoning, planning, and movement; the parietal lobe processes sensory input; the temporal lobe manages auditory information and memory; the occipital lobe processes visual data.

What is the function of the somatosensory cortex and the motor cortex? The somatosensory cortex processes touch and body sensations, while the motor cortex controls voluntary movements.

What is the corpus callosum and what is its function? It is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing for communication between them.

Who is Brenda Milner, Ph.D. and what was her contribution? Dr. Milner is a pioneering neuropsychologist whose research on memory—especially studies with patients having brain damage—has greatly advanced our understanding of brain-behavior relationships.

Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception

What is the difference between sensation and perception? Sensation is the detection of stimuli by sensory receptors, and perception is the interpretation of those sensory signals by the brain.

Explain bottom-up processing with an example. Bottom-up processing builds perception from individual sensory details (e.g., recognizing an object by assembling its visual features).

Explain top-down processing with an example. Top-down processing uses prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information (e.g., reading a blurred word based on context).

What are sensory receptors? They are specialized cells that respond to specific stimuli (light, sound, touch) and send information to the brain.

What is the absolute threshold? Provide an example. It is the minimum level of stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus—for example, the faintest sound you can hear in a quiet room.

What is the difference threshold (just noticeable difference)? Provide an example. It is the smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected, such as noticing a slight change in brightness.

What is signal detection theory? Provide an example. It explains how we discern a signal from background noise, such as detecting a faint beep in a noisy environment.

Define selective attention with an example. Selective attention is focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., concentrating on a friend’s conversation in a crowded room).

What is perceptual set? It is a mental predisposition to perceive things in a particular way based on expectations.

What is sensory adaptation? Provide an example. Sensory adaptation is the diminished response to a constant stimulus, such as eventually not noticing a persistent odor.

Define retina, rods, and cones. The retina is the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye; rods detect light intensity (helping in low light), and cones detect color and detail.

What is the visual cortex? It is the region of the brain that processes visual information.

What are feature detectors? They are neurons that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as edges or movement.

Compare the trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. The trichromatic theory posits that three types of cones (red, green, blue) enable color vision, while the opponent-process theory suggests that colors are perceived in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow).

What is the figure-ground relationship? It is the ability to distinguish an object (the figure) from its background (the ground).

What is gestalt psychology? It is an approach that emphasizes that the whole of perception is greater than the sum of its parts.

What is depth perception? Depth perception is the ability to perceive the distance and three-dimensional structure of objects.

What is the difference between binocular and monocular cues? Binocular cues require the use of both eyes (e.g., retinal disparity), whereas monocular cues are available to one eye (e.g., relative size, interposition).

What does perceptual constancy mean? Give examples. It is the tendency to perceive objects as unchanging despite variations in sensory input (e.g., size constancy, shape constancy, color constancy).

What is the cochlea? It is the spiral-shaped organ in the inner ear that converts sound waves into neural signals.

Define kinesthetic sense. It is the sense that provides awareness of the position and movement of body parts.

Define vestibular sense. It is the sense that helps maintain balance and spatial orientation.

Who is Christine Ladd-Franklin, Ph.D. and what was her contribution? Dr. Ladd-Franklin was a psychologist who made important contributions to the study of color vision and perception.

Chapter 4: States of Consciousness

What is stream of consciousness? It refers to the continuous flow of thoughts, feelings, and sensations in the mind.

What is consciousness and what are its two parts? Consciousness is our awareness of internal and external stimuli, comprising the state of awareness and the content within that awareness.

What is the reticular activating system? It is a network of neurons in the brain stem that regulates wakefulness and sleep.

Describe the levels of awareness (higher-level, lower-level, altered states, subconscious, and unconscious thought). Higher-level consciousness involves focused, active thought; lower-level involves routine functions; altered states are non-ordinary states (e.g., hypnosis, meditation); the subconscious contains information just below awareness; and unconscious thought is information completely outside of awareness.

What is the difference between controlled and automatic processes? Controlled processes require conscious effort and attention, whereas automatic processes occur with little or no conscious awareness.

How do circadian rhythms impact our daily lives? They are biological cycles that regulate sleep-wake patterns and other physiological functions over a 24-hour period.

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus? It is a region in the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms.

What are the stages of non-REM sleep and what happens in each? Non-REM sleep includes Stage 1 (light sleep), Stage 2 (onset of sleep with body temperature drop), and Stages 3/4 (deep, restorative sleep).

What is REM sleep and what occurs during it? REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreaming while the body experiences temporary paralysis.

What are the characteristics of insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea? Insomnia is difficulty falling or staying asleep; narcolepsy involves sudden sleep attacks; sleep apnea is characterized by repeated pauses in breathing during sleep.

What is the difference between manifest content and latent content in dreams? Manifest content is the literal storyline of a dream, while latent content represents its hidden psychological meaning.

What is the cognitive theory of dreaming? It suggests that dreams reflect our thoughts, concerns, and problem-solving processes.

What is the activation-synthesis hypothesis for dreaming? It proposes that dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Define tolerance and explain its impact on drug response. Tolerance is a reduced response to a drug following repeated use, leading to the need for higher doses to achieve the same effect.

What is the difference between physical dependence and psychological dependence? Physical dependence involves bodily adaptation to a drug (withdrawal symptoms), while psychological dependence involves emotional or mental reliance on the drug.

Explain the concept of addiction. Addiction is a chronic disorder characterized by compulsive drug use despite negative consequences.

What are the signs or symptoms of substance use disorder? They include an inability to control use, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, and interference with daily life.

What are psychoactive drugs and what are their three main categories? Psychoactive drugs affect brain function; they are generally classified as depressants, stimulants, or hallucinogens.

How do depressants impact the body? Provide examples. Depressants slow down brain activity and can include substances like alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates.

How do stimulants impact the body? Provide examples. Stimulants increase alertness and energy; examples include caffeine, nicotine, and amphetamines.

How do hallucinogens impact the body? Provide examples. Hallucinogens alter perception and mood; examples include LSD, psilocybin, and MDMA.

What are opioids and how do most people first encounter them? Opioids are pain-relieving drugs that many people first encounter through medical prescriptions or recreational use.

What is meditation and what are its benefits? Meditation is a practice of focused attention and mindfulness that can reduce stress, improve concentration, and enhance overall well-being.

Who is Carl L. Hart, Ph.D. and what was his contribution? Dr. Hart is a psychologist whose research on drug use challenges common misconceptions about addiction and emphasizes the role of environmental and social factors.

Chapter 5: Learning

What is learning? Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

What is behaviorism? Behaviorism is the perspective that focuses on observable behaviors and the influence of environmental factors, largely ignoring internal mental processes.

What is observational learning? Provide an example. Observational learning occurs by watching and imitating others—for example, a child learning to tie their shoes by watching a parent.

What is classical conditioning? Define US, UR, NS, CS, and CR with an example. Classical conditioning is learning by association. The unconditioned stimulus (US) naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). When a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the US, it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR)—as in Pavlov’s experiment with dogs.

Define acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning. Acquisition is the initial learning of the association, extinction is the gradual weakening of the conditioned response when the CS is presented without the US, and spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a pause.

What is the difference between generalization and discrimination? Generalization occurs when a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the CS, while discrimination is the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the specific CS.

Describe Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment. Pavlov rang a bell (initially a neutral stimulus) before presenting food (US) to dogs, which naturally salivated (UR); eventually, the bell alone (CS) produced salivation (CR).

Describe Watson’s experiment with Little Albert. Watson paired a loud noise (US) with a white rat (NS), which caused fear (UR); after conditioning, the rat (CS) alone evoked fear (CR), and the fear generalized to similar stimuli.

What is counterconditioning? It is the process of replacing an unwanted conditioned response with a more desirable one by associating the stimulus with a new response.

What is aversive conditioning? Provide an example. Aversive conditioning pairs an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce that behavior—for example, applying a bad taste to discourage nail biting.

What is habituation? Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations when that stimulus is neither rewarding nor harmful.

What is operant conditioning and who is B.F. Skinner? Operant conditioning is learning that occurs through the consequences of behavior; B.F. Skinner is famous for his work on reinforcement and punishment.

Define reinforcement and differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement with examples. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus (e.g., praise), while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping a loud noise).

Define punishment and differentiate between positive and negative punishment with examples. Punishment decreases behavior. Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus (e.g., extra chores), and negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus (e.g., loss of privileges).

What is shaping? Provide an example. Shaping is gradually reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior, such as rewarding successive steps in training a dog to sit.

What is learned helplessness? Provide an example. Learned helplessness occurs when repeated failures lead an individual to stop trying—like a student who gives up after constant poor exam performance.

What is the difference between a primary and a secondary reinforcer? A primary reinforcer satisfies a basic biological need (e.g., food), while a secondary reinforcer acquires value through association (e.g., money).

What is latent (implicit) learning? It is learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and is not demonstrated until a later time.

What is insight learning? Insight learning is the sudden realization of a problem’s solution, as demonstrated by Kohler’s studies with chimpanzees.

Who is Martha E. Bernal, Ph.D. and what was her contribution? Dr. Bernal was a psychologist recognized for her work on ethnic diversity and gender issues in psychology, contributing to a broader understanding of cultural influences on behavior.