psych exam #1

chapters 1,2,5

psychology

scientific study of mental activity and behavior, depending on brain processing

behavior

all actions that result from sensing and interpreting information

empiricism

conducting psychological research using and objective evidence-based approach

sciences of learning

psychological principles to improve your study skills learning, and academic performance

critical thinking

systemically evaluating information to reach conclusions based on the evidence presented

step 1 of critical thinking

Is the source of the claim believable?

step 2 of critical thinking

IS there strong evidence for the claim?

intuition

personal, instinctive, gut feeling about something, but it is not scientific

beliefs

personal but not necessarily factually accurate

opinions

personal judgments about a topic that are not necessarily based on scientific evidence

step 3 of critical thinking

Do other believable sources agree about the claim?

What did Wundt do?

created the first psych. laboratory that focused on internal workings of mind

what are the 5 domains of psychology?

biological, cognitive, developmental, social & personality, mental & physical health

ethics

accepted standards of right and wrong that guide how today’s psychologists should go about conducting research

institutional review boards

groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and protects participants

4 main ethical issues

privacy, confidentiality, informed consent, & protection from harm

protection from harm

researchers cannot ask participants to endure unreasonable pain or discomfort; risk/benefit ratio

4 goals of science

describing, predicting, controlling, explaining

steps of scientific method

1. formulate a theory
2. develop a testable hypothesis
3. test with a research method '
4. analyze the data
5. share the results and conduct more research

theory

an explanation of how some mental process or behavior occurs

hypothesis

an attempt to answer a theory’s questions and consists of a testable prediction that should be observed if the theory is correct

replication

repeating an experiment to confirm results

descriptive methods

provide a systematic and objective description of what is occurring

3 types of descriptive methods

1. case studies
2. observational studies
3. self-reports

case studies

Involve intensive examination of a few unique people or organizations

observational studies

A specific type of descriptive method involving systematically assessing and *coding* observable behavior

self-reports

A descriptive method that consists of obtaining self-reports from research participants

correlational methods

Examine how variables are naturally related in the real world

Measure two factors and then determine the degree of association between the two variables

directionality problem

exists when researchers are uncertain which variable caused the other

third variable problem

exists when researchers are uncertain if a cause should be attributed to a third (hidden) variable

experimental methods

Research methods that test causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring the effects on dependent variables

independent variable

The variable that the experimenter manipulates to examine its impact on the dependent variable

dependent variable

The variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

control group

a comparison group of participants who receive no intervention or one unrelated to the independent variable being investigated

experimental group

one or more treatment groups of participants who receive the intervention of the independent variable being investigated

between subjects design

different individuals in the two groups

within subjects design

same person experiences both group conditions

population

the general group an experiment wants to know about

sampling

the process an experiment uses to select people from the population to participate in a study

sample

the subset of people chosen to participate in a study

convenience sample

a sample consisting of people who are conveniently available for the study

random sample

A sample that fairly represents the population by allowing each member of the population an equal chance of being included

random assignment

Placing research participants in the conditions of an experiment such that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable

nervous system

A network of billions of cells in the brain and the body, responsible for all aspects of what we feel, think, and do.

3 basic functions of nervous sytem

1. receives sensory input from world through 5 senses
2. process info in brain by paying attention, receiving, and remembering
3. respond to info by acting on it

central nervous system

The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system that enables nerves to connect the central nervous system to the skin, muscles, organs, and glands.

neurons

cells that receive integrate and transmit information in the nervous system

how do neurons operate/communicate

through electrical impulses and connect with other neurons through chemical signals & communicate selectively with other neurons and form neural networks

dendrites

Branchlike extensions of the neuron with receptors that detect information from other neurons.

cell body

The part of the neuron where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated.

axon

The long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron that enables it to transmit information to other neurons.

terminal buttons

Parts of the neuron at the end of the axon(s) that release chemical signals from the neuron into the synapse.

synapse

The site of communication between neurons through neurotransmitters.

neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that carry signals from one neuron to another.

resting state

electrical charge inside the neuron is slightly more negative than the electrical charge outside

when do ions enter the neuron?

when neuron is stimulated from other neurons

when is action potential fired?

when there are enough signals from other neurons, the neuron fire

action potential

The neural impulse that travels along the axon and then causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.

myelin sheath

Fatty layer that insulates the axon so that the action potential can travel down the axon faster.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that receptors respond to

presynaptic neuron

send signals

postsynaptic neuron

receives signals

excitatory signals

increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential.

inhibitory signals

inhibit the neuron. They decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential

agonists

drugs that enhance the actions of neurotransmitters, bind to receptor

antagonists

drugs that inhibit actions of neurotransmitters, receptor blockers

3 main brain divisions

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

medulla

located at the top of spinal cord, controls survival functions

pons

located above medulla, regulates sleep and arousal, coordinates movements of left and right sides

cerebellum

located at back of the brain stem, coordinated movement and balance

midbrain

reflexive movement of the eyes and body

substantia nigra

initiation of voluntary motor activity

thalamus

Gateway to the brain for almost all incoming sensory information before that information reaches the cortex.

**Hypothalamus**

Involved in regulating bodily functions. also influences our basic motivated behaviors.

**Hippocampus**

Associated with the formation of memories

**Amygdala**

Vital for processing the emotional significance of stimuli, especially fear, and memory processing during times of emotional arousal.

cerebral cortex

outer layer of forebrain. has 4 lobes

occipital lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex at the back of the brain; these regions are important for vision

parietal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes; these regions are important for the sense of touch and for picturing the layout of spaces in an environment.

temporal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex below the parietal lobes and in front of the occipital lobes; these regions are important for processing auditory information and for perceiving objects and faces.

frontal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex at the front of the brain; these regions are important for movement and complex processes (rational thought, attention, and social processes).

somatic nervous system

allows you to process and interact with the outside world. transmits sensory and motor signals with CNS and skin, muscles, & joints

autonomic nervous system

controls the processes within the body Transmits sensory signals and motor signals back and forth between the central nervous system and the body’s glands and internal organs

2 divisions of nervous system

*Sympathetic nervous system & Parasympathetic nervous system*

behavioral genetics

involves the study of how genes and environment interact to influence mental activity and behavior.

sensation

The sense organ’s detection of external physical stimulus and the transmission of information about this stimulus to the brain

**Transduction**

A process by which sensory receptors change physical stimuli into neural signals that are sent to the brain.

**Perception**

The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory information in the brain; translates sensation into information that is meaningful and useful

absolute threshold

smallest strength of a stimulus that can be detected

difference threshold

smallest difference between 2 stimuli that can be detected (weber’s law)

sensory adaptation

gradual decline in sensitivity to constant stimulus

grouping

The visual system’s organization of features and regions to create the perception of a whole, unified object.

law of proximity

close figures are grouped as an object

law of similarity

similar figures are grouped as an object

law of continuity

intersecting lines are interpreted as continuous

law of closure

figures with gaps are interpreted as complete

illusory contours

contours are perceived even when they no not exist

perceptual sets

tendencies to perceive stimuli in specific ways that make sense given prior experiences and expectations

bottom-up processing

processing of info that is based on the properties of the stimulus in the world