AP Psych Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

Abraham Maslow

an American psychologist known for his humanistic theory of personality and the hierarchy of needs, which suggests that individuals strive for self-actualization and personal growth once their basic needs are met.

achievement motivation

the desire to excel, succeed, or accomplish challenging goals, often driven by the pursuit of competence, mastery, or recognition in specific domains or tasks.

acto-observer bias

the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to external factors while attributing others' behavior to internal factors, particularly in situations where one is the actor (participant) versus the observer.

affiliation need

a fundamental human motivation to seek social connections, relationships, and belongingness with others, driven by the desire for companionship, support, and interpersonal bonds.

aggression

behavior that is intended to cause harm or injury to another individual, either physically or psychologically.

Albert Bandura

a psychologist known for his social-cognitive theory of personality, self-efficacy theory, and research on observational learning (modeling), which emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, social learning, and self-regulation in behavior.

Alfred Adler

an Austrian psychiatrist and founder of individual psychology, known for his theories on the importance of social dynamics, striving for superiority, and the influence of early childhood experiences on personality development.

altruism

selfless behavior or actions that are motivated by concern for the well-being or welfare of others, without expecting any personal benefit or reward in return.

attitudes

evaluations, feelings, or beliefs about people, objects, or ideas that influence behavior and responses to the social world.

attribution theory

a psychological framework that explores how individuals explain the causes of events, behaviors, and outcomes, either attributing them to internal factors (such as personality traits) or external factors (such as situational circumstances).

basal metabolic rate

the minimum amount of energy or calories required by the body to maintain basic physiological functions (such as respiration, circulation, and cell metabolism) while at rest and in a fasting state.

behavior feedback effect

the phenomenon whereby changes in behavior can influence emotional experience and physiological arousal, suggesting that actions and movements can affect mood and subjective feelings.

behavioral approach

a psychological perspective that focuses on observable behaviors, environmental influences, and learning principles (such as classical and operant conditioning) in explaining personality and behavior.

Bibb Latane

a social psychologist known for his research on social loafing, bystander effect, and diffusion of responsibility, particularly his experiments on helping behavior in emergency situations.

Big Five Factors

theory that contains five broad dimensions of personality traits openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, which capture the major dimensions of individual differences in personality.

bystander effect

a social phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to offer help or intervene in an emergency situation when others are present, often due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence.

Carl Jung

a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology, known for his theories on the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of individuation.

Carl Rogers

an American psychologist and founder of client-centered therapy, known for his humanistic theory of personality, emphasis on unconditional positive regard, and the importance of self-concept and self-actualization in personal growth.

central route persuasion

a method of persuasion that involves careful consideration and evaluation of the arguments, evidence, and logic presented in a persuasive message.

cognitive dissonance theory

proposed by Leon Festinger, suggests that individuals experience psychological discomfort when their attitudes or beliefs are inconsistent with their behavior, leading them to seek consistency and reduce dissonance through attitude change or rationalization.

collective unconscious

a concept in analytical psychology proposed by Carl Jung, referring to a shared reservoir of unconscious memories, symbols, and experiences that are common to all humans and inherited across generations.

collectivism

a cultural orientation that prioritizes the interests, values, and goals of the group or community over those of the individual, emphasizing cooperation, interdependence, and social harmony.

companionate love

a deep and enduring emotional bond characterized by intimacy, trust, affection, and commitment, often found in long-term relationships or marriages.

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of goals, interests, or values between individuals or groups, leading to disagreement, tension, or competition.

conformity

the tendency to adjust one's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to match those of a majority group or social norms, often in response to real or perceived pressure to fit in or be accepted.

culture

the shared beliefs, values, norms, customs, traditions, and practices that characterize a particular group, community, or society, influencing behavior, attitudes, and social interactions.

defense mechanisms

unconscious strategies or tactics used by the ego to protect against anxiety, threats, or conflicts, by distorting reality, repressing impulses, or redirecting emotions.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and individuality that occurs when individuals are part of a group or crowd, leading to reduced inhibitions, increased conformity, and impulsive behavior.

discrimination

the unjust or prejudicial treatment of individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular social category, often resulting in differential access to resources, opportunities, or rights.

drive-reduction theory

a motivational theory proposing that biological drives, such as hunger or thirst, create a state of tension or arousal (drive) that motivates organisms to engage in behaviors that reduce or satisfy those drives and restore homeostasis.

ego

the rational and decision-making component of personality that operates on the reality principle, mediating between the demands of the id, superego, and external reality, while managing internal conflicts and desires.

emotion

a complex psychological and physiological state characterized by subjective feelings, physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and cognitive appraisal, often in response to external stimuli or internal thoughts.

empirically derived test

a psychological assessment tool developed through systematic research and statistical analysis of large datasets, ensuring reliability and validity based on empirical evidence.

equity

a sense of fairness, balance, and mutual give-and-take in the distribution of rewards, benefits, and responsibilities between partners.

extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity or behavior in order to obtain external rewards, incentives, or avoid punishment, rather than for the inherent satisfaction or enjoyment of the activity itself.

facial feedback effect

the phenomenon whereby facial expressions can influence emotional experience and physiological arousal, suggesting that changes in facial muscles can affect mood and subjective feelings.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

a persuasion technique in which compliance with a small request is followed by compliance with a larger request, based on the principle of consistency and the desire to maintain a positive self-image.

free association

a psychoanalytic technique in which individuals are encouraged to express themselves freely and spontaneously, revealing unconscious thoughts, emotions, and memories without censorship or judgment.

frustration-aggression principle

suggests that frustration, resulting from the blocking of goals or desires, often leads to aggressive behavior or responses.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors and underestimate the influence of external factors when explaining the behavior of others, especially in negative or ambiguous situations.

glucose

a simple sugar and the primary source of energy for cells in the body, obtained from the digestion of carbohydrates in food and transported through the bloodstream to fuel cellular metabolism.

grit

the perseverance, passion, and resilience demonstrated by individuals in the pursuit of long-term goals or objectives, despite facing obstacles, setbacks, or failures.

group polarization

the tendency for group discussion or interaction to intensify and reinforce the initial attitudes, opinions, or inclinations of group members, leading to more extreme decisions or positions.

groupthink

a phenomenon in which group members prioritize harmony and consensus over critical evaluation of alternatives or dissenting opinions, leading to flawed decision-making and the suppression of dissent.

hierarchy of needs

a theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human motivation is organized into a hierarchical structure of needs, ranging from basic physiological needs to higher-order psychological needs such as self-esteem and self-actualization.

homeostasis

the body's tendency to maintain a stable, balanced internal environment despite changes in external conditions, through physiological mechanisms that regulate various bodily processes and functions.

humanistic theories

psychological theories that emphasize the inherent goodness, self-actualizing tendency, and potential for growth and fulfillment in individuals, focusing on subjective experiences, personal values, and self-determination.

id

the primitive and instinctual component of personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic needs and desires, regardless of social norms or consequences.

incentive

a stimulus or reward that motivates or encourages behavior, often by offering the possibility of obtaining positive outcomes or avoiding negative consequences.

individualism

a cultural orientation that prioritizes the rights, needs, and goals of the individual over those of the group, emphasizing independence, autonomy, and personal achievement.

informational social influence

when individuals conform to the beliefs or behaviors of others because they believe others possess accurate knowledge or information, leading to acceptance of the group's judgments or decisions.

ingroup

a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging, typically characterized by shared values, norms, and identities.

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor and show positive attitudes toward members of one's own ingroup while displaying negative attitudes toward members of outgroups.

instinct

an innate, fixed pattern of behavior that is characteristic of a species and is often triggered by specific stimuli, serving important adaptive functions such as survival and reproduction.

intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity or behavior for its own sake, deriving satisfaction, enjoyment, or fulfillment from the activity itself rather than external rewards or incentives.

John Darley

a social psychologist known for his research on bystander intervention, diffusion of responsibility, and the factors influencing helping behavior in emergency situations.

Joseph LeDoux

an American neuroscientist known for his research on the neural mechanisms of emotion, particularly the role of the amygdala in fear and emotional processing.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that the world is inherently fair and that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming and rationalization of inequalities and injustices.

Karen Horney

a German psychoanalyst and pioneer of feminist psychology, known for her theories on neurosis, the impact of social and cultural factors on personality, and the concept of basic anxiety.

Leon Festinger

a social psychologist known for his theory of cognitive dissonance and his research on social comparison processes, group dynamics, and the psychology of cults.

loose culture

societies with weaker social norms, more permissive attitudes, and greater tolerance for diversity and deviance, resulting in less conformity and social control.

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon whereby repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as a person, object, or idea, increases liking or preference for that stimulus over time, even in the absence of conscious awareness.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

a widely used psychological assessment tool for measuring personality and psychopathology, consisting of a series of true/false statements that assess various personality traits, psychological symptoms, and disorders.

mirror-image perceptions

the reciprocal views or stereotypes that conflicting parties hold about each other, in which each side sees the other as aggressive, hostile, or unreasonable, while viewing themselves as peaceful, reasonable, and justified.

motivation

the processes that initiate, guide, and sustain goal-directed behavior, including the internal and external factors that energize and direct behavior towards achieving specific goals or outcomes.

narcissism

a personality trait characterized by excessive self-admiration, grandiosity, entitlement, and a lack of empathy for others, often accompanied by a need for admiration and validation from others.

normative social influence

when individuals conform to group norms or expectations in order to gain social approval, acceptance, or avoid rejection or disapproval.

norms

shared rules, expectations, and standards of behavior that guide interactions and social conduct within groups or societies.

obedience

the compliance with direct commands or instructions from an authority figure or social group, often in the absence of personal responsibility or accountability for the consequences of one's actions.

obesity

a medical condition characterized by excessive accumulation of body fat to the extent that it may have adverse effects on health, well-being, and quality of life, often defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.

ostracism

the act of excluding or ignoring individuals from social interactions, relationships, or group activities, often resulting in feelings of rejection, loneliness, and social pain.

other race effect

the tendency to better recognize and distinguish faces of individuals from one's own racial or ethnic group compared to those of other racial or ethnic groups.

outgroup

a social group with which an individual does not identify and may perceive as different or inferior, often leading to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.

passionate love

an intense emotional state characterized by strong feelings of attraction, longing, and desire for intimacy and physical closeness, often experienced early in a romantic relationship.

Paul Costa

a psychologist known for his collaboration with Robert McCrae in developing the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality and for his research on personality development and aging.

Paul Ekman

an American psychologist known for his research on facial expressions, emotion, and nonverbal communication, as well as his contributions to the study of universal emotions and the Facial Action Coding System (FACS).

peripheral route persuasion

a method of persuasion that relies on superficial factors such as attractiveness, credibility, or emotional appeals rather than the quality of the message itself.

person perception

the process of forming impressions, judgments, and evaluations of other people based on their behavior, appearance, and other observable characteristics.

personality

an individual's unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across different situations, shaping their identity, interactions, and experiences.

personality inventory

a self-report questionnaire or assessment tool used to measure and assess various personality traits, characteristics, or dimensions, often based on empirical research and psychometric principles.

personality psychology

the branch of psychology that focuses on understanding individual differences in behavior, thoughts, and emotions, as well as the underlying psychological processes that contribute to the development and expression of personality traits.

persuasion

the process of intentionally influencing attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of others through communication, argumentation, or manipulation of information.

physiological need

basic biological requirements for survival and functioning, such as food, water, shelter, and sleep, which must be satisfied to maintain homeostasis and well-being.

polygraph

commonly known as a lie detector, a device used to measure physiological responses (such as heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductivity) that are believed to be associated with deception or emotional arousal, often used in forensic and security settings.

prejudice

a negative attitude or belief held about individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular social category, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or religion.

projective test

a psychological assessment tool used to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli and interpreting their responses, which are thought to reflect underlying personality dynamics.

psychodynamic theories

psychological theories that emphasize the role of unconscious processes, inner conflicts, and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior, particularly within the framework of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory.

psychoanalysis

a therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to explore and resolve unconscious conflicts, desires, and motivations through techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of unconscious thoughts and feelings.

reciprocal determinism

a key concept in social-cognitive theory proposed by Albert Bandura, suggesting that behavior, personal factors (such as cognition, beliefs), and environmental influences (such as social context, reinforcement) interact and influence each other bidirectionally over time.

reciprocity norm

a social norm that suggests individuals should reciprocate kind or helpful actions of others, fostering mutual cooperation and social exchange.

repression

a defense mechanism that involves pushing threatening or anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, or memories into the unconscious mind, preventing conscious awareness and reducing distress.

Richard Lazarus

an American psychologist known for his research on stress, coping, and emotion, particularly the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, which emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in emotional experience.

Robert McCrae

a psychologist known for his research on personality and the development of the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality, which includes five broad dimensions of personality traits - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Robert Zajonc

a Polish-American psychologist known for his research on social psychology, social facilitation, and the mere exposure effect, which suggests that repeated exposure to stimuli increases liking and preference for those stimuli.

role

a set of expected behaviors, duties, and responsibilities associated with a particular position, status, or social identity within a group or society.

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective psychological test consisting of symmetrical inkblots that individuals are asked to interpret, revealing unconscious thoughts, feelings, and perceptions based on their responses.

scapegoat theory

suggests that individuals or groups who are frustrated or facing negative circumstances may redirect their aggression toward a target that is perceived as weaker or different, serving as a scapegoat for their frustrations.

self

a multidimensional construct that encompasses an individual's beliefs, attitudes, values, identity, and self-awareness, representing their subjective experience of themselves as separate and distinct from others.

self-actualization

the highest level of psychological development and fulfillment according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, characterized by the realization of one's potential, pursuit of personal growth, and fulfillment of intrinsic values and aspirations.

self-concept

an individual's perception, beliefs, and evaluations about themselves, including their identity, self-worth, abilities, and roles, which shapes their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.