Vocab

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflexive response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to food).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, triggers a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to the conditioned stimulus, similar to the unconditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial phase of learning in classical conditioning when the CS and UCS are paired.

Extinction

The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after it has been extinguished and time has passed.

Generalization

When a conditioned response occurs to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

(Conditioning) Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that are different.

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that occurs after just one pairing of the CS and UCS.

Aversion Therapy

Using classical conditioning to create a negative response to a harmful stimulus.

Learned Helplessness

When a subject learns that it cannot escape a bad situation, so it stops trying, even if conditions change.

Biological Preparedness

The idea that organisms are biologically predisposed to form associations that aid survival.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with conditioned responses.

Operant Conditioning

Learning where behaviors are shaped by consequences, like rewards or punishments.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that get closer to the desired behavior.

Token Economy

A system where tokens are earned for good behavior and exchanged for rewards.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only sometimes, which makes it more resistant to extinction.

Fixed Ratio

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time.

Variable Interval

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs at unpredictable time intervals.

Observational/Social Learning/Modeling

Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reward, but is demonstrated later when needed.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of how to solve a problem without trial and error.

Mere Exposure Effect

Preference for things simply because we are familiar with them.

Central Route

Persuasion through logical arguments and deep thinking.

Peripheral Route

Persuasion influenced by superficial cues like attractiveness.

The Halo Effect

Assuming positive traits in one area mean positive traits in others.

Foot-in-the-Door

A small request is followed by a larger one.

Door-in-the-Face

A large request is made first, followed by a smaller one.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation to return benefits for benefits received.

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior by personality traits.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior by external circumstances.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When expectations cause someone to act in ways that make the expectation come true.

Fundamental Attribution Error/Bias

Overestimating personal traits and underestimating situational factors.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing successes to oneself and failures to external factors.

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort from holding conflicting thoughts or beliefs.

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating how much others share our opinions or behaviors.

Just World Bias

Believing people get what they deserve, often leading to victim-blaming.

Social Comparison Theory

Determining self-worth by comparing ourselves to others.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Believing that members of an out-group are more similar than they really are.

In-Group Bias

Favoring one’s own group over others.

Belief Perseverance

Holding onto beliefs even after they’re disproven.

The Bystander Effect

Less likelihood of helping in an emergency when others are present.

Norms

Social rules about expected behavior in certain situations.

Social Loafing

Putting in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Group Polarization

Group discussions make individuals' beliefs more extreme.

Groupthink

Prioritizing group harmony over critical thinking, often leading to poor decisions.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness and acting impulsively in group situations.

Social Facilitation

Performing better on tasks when others are watching.

Social Impairment

Performing worse on tasks when others are watching.

Solomon Asch’s Conformity Study

A study showing individuals often conform to a group’s wrong answer.

Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study

A study demonstrating people’s willingness to obey authority, even when it involves harming others.