Political Process / Linkage Institutions Study Guide

Political Socialization

How people internalize and develop their political values through socialization

Individualism (Core Value)

Morals of the individual person. Everyone has their own beliefs

Equality of Opportunity

A political ideal which aims to provide all people with equal opportunities to compete in advancements in society (jobs)

Free Enterprise (Core Value)

Businesses are free to operate with minimal government regulation

Rule of Law (Core Value)

All people and institutions are subject to the same laws (No one is above the law)

Limited Government

System of Government where the government’s power is restricted by law

(Individual rights are protected from gov intrustion)

6 Cultural Factors

Family, School, Peers, Media, Social Environments, Major Political Events

Liberal

Open to new ideas, opinions, behaviors. Promotes Individual rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free enterprise

Conservative

Averse to new ideas, opinions, behaviors. Holding Traditional values. Favors free enterprise, private ownership, and socially traditional ideas.

Moderates

In the middle of Conservative and Liberal. May lean one way with different issues than another.

Democratic

Progressive ideas surrounding all sorts of political issues

Republican

Traditional ideas surrounding all sorts of political issues

Libertarian

Advocate supporter of a political philosophy with only minimal state intervention in the free market and the private lives of citizens. Advocates for civil liberty.

Monetary economy

Refers to the actions central banks take to pursue objectives such as price stability and maximum employment.

Federal reserve, interest rates, money & supply, appointed governors

Fiscal economy

Refers to the government's revenue collection and spending decisions

Congress, taxes & government spending, elected officials

Keynesian economy

• A macroeconomic theory of total spending in the economy and its effects on output, employment and inflation. 

Promotes government spending on infrastructure, unemployment benefits, and education to increase consumer demand. Government spending is necessary to maintain full employment

Supply-Side economy

• the idea that increasing supply of goods yields economic growth 

Benefits the upper class

Opinion Polls

Survey poll to see public opinion of candidate

Benchmark polls

Generally the 1st poll taken during a campaign. Helps candidates to shape their campaign plans

Tracking polls

A poll repeated periodically with the same small group of people to check and measure changes of opinion or knowledge.

Exit polls

Happens when people are leaving a polling place they’re asked how they voted

Sampling Techniques

How respondents are selected by the poll creator. This can be random or representative of the general population

Sampling Error

The predicted difference between the opinions of the sample and the average opinion in the general population

Examples of Sampling Error

• Type and format of questions : confusing questions that alter poll results 

• Limited respondent options : Yes/No Questions rather than scales 

• Lack of Information : gauging attitudes on topics people have little knowledge of 

• Intensity : feelings on topic 

• Interest

Linkage Institutions

Channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policy makers  

Linkage Institutions examples

Political parties, interest groups, election/voting, media, polling can be used by any of the above groups

Impact on the electorate

Mobilization of voters, Education of voters, Party platforms, Candidate recruitment, Campaign management (fundraising, media strat), Connection with committee and party leadership systems in legislature (state and federal)

How have Political Parties changed over time?

• Parties have adapted to candidate-centered campaigns, Weaker nomination of candidates 

• Parties modify their policies and messaging to appeal to various demographics

• Regional realignments, finance laws,  changes in communication and data management tech

What is the Systemic Reason 3rd parties don’t find success?

• Narrow platforms.

• Rarely win elections BUT can spoil elections by drawing votes away from major parties 

• Sometimes revolve around major parties

What do most major parties do to 3rd party platforms?

• Proportional Election System : Results are proportional to the vote. (If they get 25% of votes, they get 25% of seats in Congress)

• Promotes power of Party > Candidate 

• Benefits Third Parties

24th Amendment

1964 : Outlawed the use of Poll Taxes in Federal Elections

17th Amendment

1913 : Direct elections of the U.S. Senators

Article I section 4 (17th Amendment)

• Outlines the powers of congress and the states regarding elections 

• States have the right to decide when the election is held 

26th Amendment

1971 : Right to vote extended to citizens that are at least 18 years old

23rd Amendment

Gives the district of columbia the right to participate in presidential election electors to the electoral college

Political Efficacy

• Definition: How much you believe you can influence the government through Linkage Institutions 

• High levels of political efficacy = higher levels of participation

Voter Turnout influences

• National vs. state controlled elections 

• Voter registration laws and procedures

• Voting incentives or penalties or fines  

• Election type (midterms or presidential) 

Winner take all (plurality) voting system

Whichever candidate receives the most votes ears ALL  of that state's electoral votes.

Proportional voting system

Maine & Nebraska : Dividing up electoral votes based on % each candidate won

Rational Choice - voting behavior

Citizens individual interests

Retrospective - voting behavior

Basing the candidate’s or party’s job performance on whether or not to vote for them again or someone new

Prospective - voting behavior

Voting based on predictions of candidates or party’s performance

Straight Ticket - voting behavior

Voting based on party

Order of events in a presdential election year

1 Winter : First Caucus (Iowa) 

2 Spring : Open and Closed Primaries 

3 Summer : Party Convention, Debates 

4 Fall : More Debates, The General Election 

5 Winter : Counting the EC Votes, Inauguration

Primaries

Preliminary nominating election in which voters in each state vote for their preferred candidate to become the presidential nominee for their party

Caucuses

 Alternative system used by SOME states. Instead of primary election, caucuses are local gatherings where voters meet, discuss, and voter for delegates who will go to represent a candidate

What’s the difference between an Open & Closed primary?

• Open : Voters may vote for candidates from any party and don’t have to be registered with political party a person is voting for 

• Closed : Only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party’s candidate (encourages party loyalty) 

Incumbency Advantages

• Financial Advantage (established donors, interest group connections, etc…)  

• Can advertise on experience 

• Name recognition 

• Constituent Services  

• “Scare-off” effect

National Conventions

Purpose: Political parties hold national conventions to select presidential and vice presidential nominees.

Total # of Electoral Votes

538

Winning # for electoral votes

270 <

How are each states electoral votes calculated?

Based on the % each candidate won

Reapportionment

Redistribution of seats in the HOR based on changes in population

Arguments in favor of Electoral College

• benefits smaller states rather than a focus on larger populated states

• Gives smaller states with lower population more a voice within the election rather than it being a choice of the big states

Arguments against the Electoral College

• Popular vote winner can lose. Swing states become only “important” states. In states that consistently lean towards one political party, voters of the other party feel like their vote doesn’t matter. 

Maine $ Nebraska

Dividing up electoral votes based on % each candidate won (Proportional)

What are Interest groups

• Educate voters and office holders, including drafting legislation 

• Lobbying 

• Mobilizing membership to apply pressure on the government 

What are PACS

• Political Action Committees 

• Political committee that is directly or indirectly established, financed, and maintained or controlled by a candidate.  

Differences between Interest groups and PACS

What are the differences between them: Interests groups use donations to effect policy while PACs use donations to get favored candidates elected.

Free Rider Problem

Individuals who benefit from interest groups without providing financial support

Citizens United v. FEC (2010) background

During 2008 primaries, a conservative interest group called Citizens United released a film titled Hilary: The Movie, which criticized Hillary Clinton The Federal Elections Commission (FEC) stopped it from airing for violating the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA)

Citizens United v. FEC (2010) holding

In a 5-4 majority, SCOTUS sided with Citizens United : Preventing “Independent political spending” from corporations and other interest groups violates their 1A right to free speech

Citizens United v. FEC (2010) impact

• Gives special interests and their lobbyists even more power in washington. 

• Ushered in massive increases in political spending from outside groups, dramatically expanding the political influence of wealthy donors, corporations, and special interest groups in our elections. 

• Super PACS were legitimized from this ruling 

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002)

• Effort to ban “soft money”

• Circumventing the existing Hard Money regulations 

• Reduce attack ads

• “Stand by your Ad” provision which requires Candidates to include in adverts, “I’m ____ and I approve this message.”

PACs vs. Super PACs

• PACs : Have limits to the amount they may raise for candidates 

• Super PACs : Make no direct contributions to candidates or parties therefore they have no limits in how much they raise or spend 

Modern Campaigns

• Dependence on Professional Consulting

• Duration of Election Cycles

• Applicable time period in which elections occur 

• Rising Campaign Costs

• Expensive to get your name out there 

• Impact and Reliance on Social Media

• Tik tok ads, social media in general 

Turning elections into horse races - media

Based more on popularity and factors other than qualifications and platforms of candidates