2. Integratative Approach to Psychopathology

one-dimensional model

explains a disorder by only one factor (biological, psychological, or social) and assumes a direct cause–effect relationship

multidimensional/integrative model

explains disorders as the result of interacting biological, psychological, social, emotional, and developmental influences

vasovagal syncope

a sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure leading to fainting, often triggered by sight of blood or injury

diathesis–stress model

psychological disorders develop when a genetic or biological vulnerability combines with environmental stress

gene–environment correlation model

genetic tendencies influence the likelihood of encountering environmental stressors that trigger disorders

epigenetics

study of how environmental factors can switch genes on or off without changing the DNA sequence

polygenic inheritance

trait or disorder influenced by many genes, each contributing a small effect

phenylketonuria (PKU)

inherited disorder where the body cannot break down phenylalanine, leading to intellectual disability if untreated

neurotransmitters

brain chemicals that transmit signals between neurons

glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter that “turns on” neurons and supports action

GABA

primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity and reduces anxiety

serotonin

neurotransmitter regulating mood, impulse control, eating, and aggression

dopamine

neurotransmitter involved in movement, reward, and motivation

norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that regulates arousal, panic responses, heart rate, and blood pressure

fight-or-flight response

automatic sympathetic nervous system reaction preparing the body to confront or escape danger

prepared learning

tendency to easily learn fears that aided survival, such as fear of snakes or spiders

learned helplessness

giving up attempts to change a negative situation after believing actions have no effect, linked to depression

learned optimism

maintaining an upbeat, positive outlook even under stress, supporting better mental and physical health

modeling/observational learning

acquiring new behavior by watching others rather than through direct experience

equifinality

the principle that a single psychological outcome can arise from multiple different causes or pathways

affect

momentary emotional tone or the pleasant–unpleasant (valence) dimension of an emotion

circumplex model of emotions

two-dimensional system mapping emotions by valence (positive–negative) and arousal (high–low), with time as an optional third dimension

mood

a longer-lasting emotional state that can persist for hours, days, or weeks

mania

period of extreme excitement, euphoria, and impulsivity, often alternating with depression in bipolar disorder

panic attack

sudden intense fear or discomfort occurring without real danger

HPA axis

hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal system controlling stress response and cortisol release

amygdala

limbic system structure central to fear, aggression, and anxiety

hippocampus

brain region critical for memory formation and learning

basal ganglia

brain structures important for movement and linked to obsessive–compulsive disorder

prefrontal cortex

frontal lobe region involved in decision-making, planning, and impulse control

social stigma

negative societal attitude toward mental illness that discourages seeking help

voodoo death

fatal stress reaction caused by extreme fear and social belief in a curse

susto

Latin American fright disorder marked by anxiety, insomnia, and somatic symptoms, believed to follow black magic

evil eye

Mediterranean and Middle Eastern belief that envy or a malevolent stare can cause illness or misfortune

neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to change structure and function in response to experience throughout life

implicit memory

acting on past experiences without conscious recall of the events

blindsight

ability of people with visual cortex damage to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness

stroop paradigm

task measuring attention by naming ink colors of incongruent color words to reveal unconscious processing

learned optimism

the habit of interpreting stressors with a positive, hopeful outlook that promotes resilience

equifinality principle

concept that multiple different developmental pathways can lead to the same psychological outcome

dominant gene

a gene that expresses a trait even when only one copy is inherited

recessive gene

a gene that expresses a trait only when two copies are inherited (one from each parent)

chromosomes

threadlike structures of DNA containing genes

humans have 46 arranged in 23 pairs

neuroscience

study of the brain and nervous system and how they shape behavior, emotion, and cognition

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

network connecting the CNS to the rest of the body, including somatic and autonomic systems

somatic nervous system

part of the PNS controlling voluntary muscle movements

autonomic nervous system

part of the PNS controlling involuntary functions like heartbeat and digestion

agonist

substance that increases neurotransmitter activity

antagonist

substance that blocks neurotransmitter activity

inverse agonist

substance that produces the opposite effect of a neurotransmitter

reuptake

process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron to end their action

psychoneuroendocrinology

study of how hormones and the brain interact in mental disorders

exposure and response prevention

cognitive-behavioral therapy technique that reduces OCD symptoms by gradually facing feared situations without performing rituals

placebo effect

measurable improvement caused by positive expectations rather than an active treatment

life-span developmental perspective

approach emphasizing how experiences at every life stage influence vulnerability to psychological disorders

end-of-history illusion

tendency to believe we will change little in the future compared to how much we have changed in the past

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

eight developmental crises across the lifespan that shape personality and copin

cross fostering

research method where offspring are raised by non biological parents to separate genetic from environmental influences

piloerection

reflex that makes body hairs stand upright as a leftover heat conservation and threat display response

vasoconstriction

narrowing of blood vessels during fear which raises blood pressure and redirects blood to vital organs

sensitive period

developmental window when the brain is especially responsive to certain experiences even though later learning remains possible