AP Psychology Unit 4: Learning

classical conditioning

A type of (involuntary) learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli.

Response

is a reaction to a stimulus.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

initially does not elicit a response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

reflexively, or automatically, brings about the unconditioned response (UCR or UR).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

is a NS at first, but when paired with the UCS, it elicits the conditioned response (CR).

Spontaneous recovery

Although not fully understood by behaviorists, sometimes the extinguished response will show up again later without the re-pairing of the UCS and CS.

Generalization

occurs when stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without any training.

Discrimination

occurs when only the CS produces the CR.

Stimulus

is a change in the environment that elicits (brings about) a response.

Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, an active subject voluntarily emits behaviors and can learn new behaviors.

Law of Effect

states that behaviors followed by satisfying or positive consequences are strengthened (more likely to occur), while behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened (less likely to occur).

Positive reinforcement

or reward training, emission of a behavior or response is followed by a reinforcer that increases the probability that the response will occur again.

Negative reinforcement

takes away an aversive or unpleasant consequence after a behavior has been given.

Punishment

a learner’s response is followed by an aversive consequence.

Omission training

In this training procedure, a response by the learner is followed by taking away something of value from the learner.

Aversive conditioning

is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate an unpleasant stimulus with a particular behavior.

Avoidance behavior

takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins.

Secondary reinforcer

is something neutral that, when associated with a primary reinforcer, becomes rewarding.

Token economy

Operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.

Primary reinforcer

is something that is biologically important and, thus, rewarding.

Shaping

positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior, is an effective way of teaching a new behavior.

Partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

Continuous reinforcement

is the schedule that provides reinforcement every time the behavior is exhibited by the organism.

Insight

is the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem.

Latent Learning

is defined as learning in the absence of rewards.

Social Learning

which occurs by watching the behavior of a model.

Conditioned taste aversion

an intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

Instinctive drift

a conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural (instinctive) behavior of the organism

Preparedness

means that through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species, and that behaviors contrary to an animal’s natural tendencies are learned slowly or not at all.

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase as associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, it is the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response. Occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when the response is no long reinforced.

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior for internal satisfaction. Ex: getting internal satisfaction from mastering a musical piece after working on it for months

Extrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior for external rewards or threats of punishment. Ex: working hard for a job promotion.

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating specific behaviors

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s actions may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Fixed-ratio reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-ratio reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforced a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-interval reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforced a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-interval reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforced a response at unpredictable time intervals

Observational learning

learning by observing others

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science (1) that studies behavior without reference to mental processes (2). Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)