Sociology midterm

Nuclear family

Partnership + Parenthood

• Typically a married couple with children

Fictive Kin

People who are treated like family, but not related by blood or marriage.

• Family of Choice —> the family you chose for yourself

• “The Personal Family”

Family

A family is a group of two or more people (including a householder) related by birth, marriage, or adoption who live together. Since the 1980 Current Population Survey, unrelated subfamilies are excluded from family counts. The number of families matches the number of family households, but family members include non-relatives living with them.

Family of origin

he family you were born into

Family of procreation

The family you make on your own

• i.e. husband/wife/spouse, children

Legal family

Individuals related by birth, marriage, or adoption

• Most debates about family and marriage are regarding the use of the word marriage

• Both a religious sacrament and a legal/social institution

Instititional Arenas

A social space in which relationship between people in common positions are governed by accepted rules of interaction

• Role

• When social position is accompanied by accepted patterns of behavior

Family arena

The institutional arena where people practice intimacy, childbearing, socialization, and caring work

Family as an arena: state

Where behavior is legally regulated, violence is controlled, and resources are redistributed

• Redistribution occurs via taxes

• Tax dollars are then spent on education, health care,welfare programs, Social Security etc

• Examples: enforcement of child support payments, child protective services

Family as an arena: Market

Institutional arena where labor for pay, economic exchange, and wealth accumulation take place

• Closely related to family life

• Cost of child care? Who will work? How many children will you have?

How has the marriage rate increased/decreased over time?

Declined

Has the age at first marriage:

a. Increased

b. Decreased

c. Remained stable

Increased age at first marriage

What is the average/median age at which men and women marry?

Men 29.8 years

• Women 27.8 years

• An increase of more than 1.5 years between 2010-2018

Are marriage rates higher or lower among White American compared to Black Americans?

Lower marriage rates among Black Americans than White Americans

List 3 criteria Americans today have for marriage

• Comfortable, stable income

• Little to no debt

• Secure job

How has the fertility rate changed over time?

Declines in fertility among ALL racial groups

Fertility rate (1.8) is below population replacement (2.1 births)

Is cohabitation before marriage a predictor of divorce? A precursor to divorce?

Cohabitation as a stepping stone to marriage, especially for those not economically disadvantaged

Cohabitation no longer appears to decrease marital stability

What countries are the largest groups of immigrants to America from in recent years (post 2017)?

The largest group of immigrants are from South and East Asia (27%), Mexico (25%), other countries in Latin America (25%), and Europe or Canada (13%

Divorce

Rates have remained high but stable

Declines in divorce among young adults

• May foreshadow lower divorce in the future

• Selection effect? Is there something unique about these couples marrying young?

Same-Gender Unions

Approximately doubled between 2016-2017

• Slightly more female couples than male couples

• Same gender couples tend to be more socioeconomically advantaged than different-gender couples

What is gray divorce?

Divorce rate doubled among those 50+ between 1990-2010

Confirmatory Bias

Seeking out information that supports pre-existing beliefs/hypotheses

Social Desirability Bias

Occurs in survey research

• A response the individual thinks is viewed favorably by others

• People overreport good behaviors and underreport bad ones

Longitudinal Study

Data is collected from the same participants at multiple time points

Cross-Sectional Study

Data is collected from participants at only one point in time

• A cross-section of opinions (i.e. a snapshot)

Quantitative Study

Gathering numerical data in a systematic way, analyzing it, and using the findings to make inferences or generalizations about a population and/or phenomena

• This research is often used to determine who, what and how many

Qualitative Study

Collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as descriptions, to explain why or how behind phenomena

• A deeper understanding of attitudes, beliefs and experiences

Representativeness

Measure of survey quality —> reduces bias

• Does the sample of participants match the demographics of the subset of the population being surveyed?

• Often achieved by applying a sample weight to data

Generalizability

the extent to which findings from a specific study or sample can be applied to a broader population or different contexts.

Dependent variable

The outcome

• What is being measured

• Changes under different amounts/circumstances of the independent variable

• It DEPENDS on the independent variable

independent variable

The predictor or explanatory variable

o This variable is changed or controlled in an experiment

• The “treatment” or “intervention”

• This variable is not the ‘cause’

Structural Functionalism S+W

a sociological perspective that views society as a system of interrelated parts, each serving a specific function to maintain social stability and order. Key person: Emile Durkheim

Strength:

Highlights the importance of social structures and their roles in maintaining societal stability.

Weakness:

May overlook social change and conflict, leading to an overly deterministic view of society.

Conflict Theory S+W

• About change created through opposition and conflict

• Draws on the work of Karl Marx that it is inequality and the conflict that stems from it that creates change and drives society forward

strength: focus on power dynamics and social inequalities, highlighting how competition for resources drives social change and reveals systemic oppression.

Weakness: conflict/power imbalance may mask the ways families function harmoniously and survive over time

Feminist Theory S+W

analyzes how gender shapes social structures and power dynamics. It aims to understand and challenge inequalities faced by women and marginalized genders, advocating for gender equity and emphasizing the importance of women's experiences.

Strength:

Highlights gender-based inequalities and challenges systemic sexism.

Weakness:

The diversity of feminist perspectives can lead to fragmentation and disagreements within the movement.

Exchange Theory S+W

• Family life can be viewed in terms of costs and benefits

• Each individual attempts to increase the benefits they receive from their relationships, while minimizing the costs to themselves

• Idea of fair trade (i.e., Favors should be returned)

Strengths

• Helps understand decision making

Weaknesses

• Focuses on individual needs and not family needs

Symbolic Interactionism S+W

• Examines how individuals construct meaning by interacting with each other

• Interactions shape family organization which in turn in responsible for shaping human social organization

• Enact social roles based on the expectations of others

Strength

• Focus on role of individual in shaping view of world

Weakness

Pays little attention to broader social forces

Life Course Theory S+W

examines how individual development and social change unfold over a lifetime. It focuses on the timing of life events and transitions, emphasizing how experiences, choices, and social contexts shape an individual's trajectory and outcomes.

Strength:

Emphasizes the interplay of historical, social, and cultural contexts, providing a comprehensive understanding of individual development over time.

Weakness:

Can be overly broad and complex, making it challenging to apply universally across different cultures and life experiences.

Monogamy

Each person has one spouse

Polygamy

The most prevalent form of marriage for most of history

• The strongest (often wealthiest) men would have children with multiple women

Polyandry

More than 1 husband

Polygyny

More than 1 wife

Patriarchy

A system of men’s control over family property and fathers’ authority over the behavior of women and children

Matrilineal

inheritance and lineage are traced through the mother, with significant roles for women in familial and social structures.

Courtship

a process of mate selection in which couples begin a relationship with supervised contact in public, proceed to dates in the woman’s home, and then to marriage if parents approve

• Dating for the purpose of marriage

Companionate Marriage

type of marriage focused on emotional bonds, mutual respect, and partnership, emphasizing equality and shared personal fulfillment between spouses.

Sandwich Generation

refers to individuals, typically in their 30s to 50s, who are simultaneously caring for their aging parents while also supporting their own children

What are 4 factors that have contributed to individuals living longer and declines in infant/child mortality?

Better sanitation

Improvements in the standard of living

Improvements in medical care

Improvements in nutrition

Differences in reasons for marriage – consider how these differed for rich vs. poor individuals

For the rich, marriage was to maintain lineages and create powerful alliances between families

• For the poor, marriage was about arranging cooperation in labor, especially working land

What are some of the ways Indigenous Americans differ from Europeans?

Common (but not universal) trait differentiating Indigenous from European was matrilineal descent

• Family lineage (including family name) is transmitted from mothers to children

What was the purpose/how was marriage different in the Colonial Era than the Modern Era of today?

• Consider factors, such as family size, social class

In the Colonial Era, marriage was primarily an economic and social institution, often arranged for strategic purposes, such as consolidating land or resources. Family size was generally larger, with children seen as contributors to household labor and economic stability. Social class heavily influenced marriage choices, with families seeking advantageous alliances.

In contrast, modern marriage emphasizes romantic love, individual choice, and emotional fulfillment. Families tend to be smaller, and societal norms prioritize personal happiness and partnership over economic considerations

How did electricity change family life in America?

Appliances

• Often could only run one appliance at a time

• Extended workday

• Allowed for navigating at night/travel safely in the dark

• Increase in leisure time

Why have family patterns in the Modern Era departed so drastically since the 1950s?

Market forces challenge the core functional tasks of modern families

• Laundries, restaurants, washing machines —>housewife work taken over by machines or workers

2. Women’s Increased Workforce Participation

• Due to the younger age of marriage in the 1950s, the growing economy needs more workers

3. Growth of women’s employment is more striking for educated women with higher earning power than poor women.

4. Growing welfare support

• Where the 1950s and before only provided Aid to Families with Children to married women, this program grows in the 60s and 70s to include millions of never-married women and their children

What are 5 characteristics of families in the Modern Era?

• Fewer children has led to more intensive parenting

• The period of parenting is longer

• Adult children live at home longer due to educational attainment, delays in starting careers, and a later age at first marriage

• Grandparents live longer and with better health

• With fewer grandchildren, relationships between grandchildren and grandparents may be emotionally stronger

Race

a group of people believed to share common descent/ancestry, based on perceived innate physical similarities

Ethnicity

a group of people with a common

cultural identification, based on a combination of:

• Language

• Religion

• Ancestral origin

• Traditional practices

Rule of hypodescent

“one-drop rule”

• One drop of African blood made a human being Black

• Not based on a scientific understanding of race but on the economic interests of White, male, slaveowners

Racial ethnicity

An ethnic group perceived to share physical characteristics

Endogamy

Marriage and reproduction within a distinct group

Exogamy

Marriage and reproduction outside one’s distinct group

Minority Group

• A racial or ethnic group that occupies a subordinate status in society

• Groups are usually but not always smaller than the dominant group

• Recall that rights and social justice are sources of conflict and change in society.

• White population is gradually losing its dominant numerical status.

Familism

a personal outlook that puts family obligations
first, before individual well-being
• Younger age, more children per family, and extended households make Latino families larger than any other major group

Acculturation

the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits, values, and practices of another culture, often as a result of contact with that culture.

Assimilation

process by which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the norms, values, and behaviors of another culture, often leading to a loss of their original cultural identity

Accommodation

process in which different cultural groups adjust to one another while maintaining distinct identities

Ancestries of White Americans

top 3 ancestries for White Americans:

• German (26.9%)

• English (20.4%)

• Irish (20.1%)

Differences in Birth Rates by race of mother

Latino 1.9

Black 1.7

Non-Hispanic Whites 1.6

Indigenous 1.6

Asian 1.4

Indirect Societal Forces restricting family life for Black Americans post Emancipation

• Discrimination

• Segregation

• Poverty

• Unemployment

• High mortality

List 5 outcomes of good paying, blue-collar jobs leaving cities

Unemployment

• Lower wages

• Neighbors in similar situations

• Rigid residential segregation

• Poor support systems – fewer employed extended family members

• Local in-kind institutions, like churches, have fewer members and financial resources

Largest Minority group in the U.S.

Latinos at 61 million in the US

Fastest Growing Minority Group in the U.S

Asian Americans

Characteristics of Asian American Families

• Parental support for education

  • 78% of Asian Americans 18-29 years have more than a high school education (59% in total U.S. pop)

  • higher expectations

• Strong imperative to respect and care for elders

• Lower levels of unmarried childbearing

  • Lower poverty rates than U.S. pop

  • High incomes and occupational status

Characteristics (including prevalence) of undocumented immigrants

Exploitation

The process by which the labor of some produces wealth that is controlled by others

• Fundamental class division is not about skills and expertise, but about ownership

Capitalism

those who own and control property (capital) dominate those without capital who must survive by selling their labor on unfavorable terms

• Lowest level of skill = least favorable terms

Life Chances

the practical opportunity to achieve desired material conditions and personal experiences

Social Capital

the access to resources one has by virtue of relationships and connections within a social network

Class Identity

the awareness of, and sense of belonging to, a specific social class

What are some ways the middle class is ‘pulled down’ and ‘pulled up’?

Pulled Down By:

• Decline of manufacturing

• Previously able to earn a good income without college

• Non-college jobs are now likely to be low-wage service jobs

Pulled Up By:

• Education

• Women receive more pay than in the past

• High earners tend to marry other high earners

Most common occupations among the upper class

1. CEO at major corporation

2. Investment bankers and financial managers

3. Celebrities and Super athletes

How does parenting differ by social class?

Middle Class: Concerted Cultivation

• Develop children’s abilities

• Stimulate cognitive and social development

• Teach children to engage directly with professionals rather than passive submission to authority

Working Class/Poor: Accomplishment of natural growth

• Successful development as a natural outcome that will emerge if

children receive love, comfort, and care.

• Defer to decision-making by professionals

What are 3 issues with the poverty line formula?

1.Price of food has risen slower than housing and medical care

2. Doesn’t include government benefits low-income families receive

(i.e. medical assistance and tax credits)

3. Doesn’t consider cost of living varies by geographic location

List 8 facts about poverty in the U.S

1. Poverty has fallen since 2011 when it reached 16%. Currently, approximately 11.5% of U.S. population lives in poverty

2. Poverty declined during the pandemic

• Government intervention

• Expansion of Child Tax Credit which has since EXPIRED

3. Poverty is concentrated by race and ethnicity

4. Poverty is closely related to family structure

• Single mothers are most likely to live in poverty

5. Poverty has drastically reduced among older Americans since 1960s

• 1/3 of adults 65+ 1959 lived in poverty. Today, 10% of adults 65+, compared to 15% of children in 2021.

• Social Security (FDR)

• Medicare/Medicaid (1960s)

6.People in poverty experience serious deprivation
• ¼ households experience at least 1 of the following:
• Food insecure
• Housing insecurity (behind on rent)
• Job insecurity
• Mental health issue

7. Housing insecurity is common
• The United States has 580,000 homeless people (.2%)
• 1/3 of these are families
• Most poor families spend half of their income on housing
• 1 in 8 can’t pay all rent in 1 year

8. Many move in and out of poverty
• 60% of people will experience at least 1 year in bottom 1/5 of population

Gender Identity

How you view yourself based on individual chemistry and how you experience/perceive it

Gender Expression

How you demonstrate your gender to the public based on traditional norms (e.g. dress, behaviour)

Biological Sex

Objectively measurable organs and DNA

Sexual Orientation

Who you are physically, sexually, and emotionally attracted to; based on their sex/gender in relation to your own

Gender

the social realization of biological sex
• Gender is a socially constructed category
• Sex is a biological category

List 5 facts about the gender gap in pay.

• Persistent Disparity: Women, on average, earn about 82 cents for every dollar earned by men, though this can vary significantly by race and ethnicity.

• Occupational Segregation: Women are often concentrated in lower-paying industries and occupations, which contributes to the overall pay gap.

• Impact of Motherhood: Women who become mothers often experience a larger pay gap compared to their male counterparts, with penalties in earnings due to career interruptions or part-time work.

• Education Levels: Despite higher levels of education among women in recent decades, the gender pay gap persists across educational attainment levels.

• Slow Progress: While the gender pay gap has narrowed over the years, progress has been slow, and full parity is projected to take several decades if current trends continue.

Socialization

the process by which individuals internalize elements of the social structure, making those elements part of their personality

Peers

people in a similar social situation and of similar status with whom an individual interacts

Non-Binary

A gender identity that is neither wholly female nor wholly male

Androgynous

neither exclusively masculine or exclusively feminine

Intersex

a condition in which a person’s chromosomal composition
doesn’t correspond with their sexual anatomy at birth, or the anatomy is
not clearly male or female.

Transgender

individuals whose gender identity does not match their biological sex assigned at birth

Cisgender

Gender identity that matches an individual’s assigned sex at birth

Turner Syndrome

Occurs in assigned females at birth in one of the two X chromosomes is missing or incomplete
• Prevalence: 1 in 2000 or 1 in 2,500 assigned females at birth
• Common features:
• Slow growth; delayed puberty (don’t go through puberty unless they get
hormone therapy in late childhood

Klinefelter Syndrome

Genetic condition impacting assigned males at birth in which there is an extra X chromosome

• Prevalence: 1 in 600 male births

Symptoms include: infertility, breast development, atypical body
proportions, smaller penis, undescended testicles, coordination issues,
increased risk for blood clots, weaker bones

Stigma

a quality that is perceived as undesirable and that sets a person
apart from others in their social category

Heteronormative

the attitude or belief that heterosexuality is the only normal and natural expression of sexuality

Heterosexism

discrimination or prejudice against gay people on the assumption that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation