AP Psychology - Unit 2

biological psychology

pschological perspective studying links between biology and behavior

neuron

a nerve cell; building block of nervous system

sensory neurons

take sensory input (ingoing information) to brain and spinal cord (CNS)

motor neurons

make you move by taking (outgoing) information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

communicate and intervene between the sensory and motor outputs; found in the brain and spinal cord

dendrite

extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other cells

axon

passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

action potential

an electric charge that travels down an axon

threshold

amount of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (action potential)

synapse

connection between the axon terminal of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron  (the gap is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft)

neurotransmitters

travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron; influence whether or not that neuron will generate a natural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s relabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

neurotransmitters linked to reduced pain and increased pleasure

nervous system

electrochemical communication network consisting of nerve cells (fast)

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system (CNS) and the body

nerves

bundled axons connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

somatic nervous system

controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles (part of PNS)

autonomic nervous system

controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands (part of PNS)

sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body, mobilizing its energy (fight or flight—part of autonomic nervous system)

parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body, conserving its energy (rest and digest—part of autonomic nervous system)

reflex

automatic response to a sensory stimulus

endocrine system

chemical communication system that secretes hormones (slow)

hormones

chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

endocrine glands that sit above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

most influential endocrine gland; influenced by the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

lesion

destruction of (brain) tissue

electroencephalogram (EEG)

recording of the waves of brain electrical activity; measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT (computed tomography) scan

detailed X-ray photographs combined (by computer) into a representation the inside of the body (aka CAT scan)

PET (position emission tomography) scan

brain activity display obtained by detecting where a radioactive form of glucose (tracer) goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to show brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI)

reveals bloodflow and brain activity by comparing MRI scans; shows brain function

brainstem

brain’s central core; begins where spinal cord enters skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular formation

nerve network in the brainstem that controls arousal

thalamus

on top of brainstem; sends messages to sensory (receiving) areas and passes replies to the cerebellum and medulla

cerebellum

processes sensory input and coordinates movement (output and balance)

limbic system

donut-shaped neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amydala

two neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

hypothalamus

directs maintenance activities (ex

cerebral cortex

the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

glial cells (glia)

nervous system cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons

frontal lobes

involved in speaking and muscle movements and making plans and judgements

parietal lobes

receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

receives information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

includes the auditory areas (receiving information from the opposite ears)

motor cortex

controls voluntary movements

sensory cortex

registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

cerebral cortex areas not involved in primary motor/sensory functions; involved in higher mental functions (learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking)

aphasia

impairment of language, caused by left hemisphere damage (to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s area)

Broca’s area

controls language expression; (in left frontal lobe) directs speech muscle movement

Wernicke’s area

controls language reception; (in left temporal lobe) involved in language comprehension/ expression

plasticity

brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

creation of new neurons

corpus callosum

neural fiber band that connects the two brain hemispheres and passes messages between them

split brain

isolated brain hemispheres by their connection through surgery

cognitive neuroscience

study of brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, and language)

dual processing

information is simultaneously processed consciously and unconsciously

behavior genetics

the study of the power of nature (genetics) and nuture (environment) on behavior

environment

non-genetic influences

chromosomes

made of DNA molecules; contain genes

DNA (deoxyribonuecleic acid)

contains genetic information that makes up chromosomes

genes

units of heredity that make up chromosomes; segments of DNA that synthesize a proteins

genome

instructions for making an organism; all the genetic information in the chromosomes

identical twins

develop from 1 fertilized egg that splits, making them genetically identical

fraternal twins

develop from multiple fertilized eggs; as genetically close as normal siblings

heritability

amount of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; varies depending on population/ environment

interaction

the effect of one factor ex: environment) depends on another (ex: heritability)

molecular genetics

studies molecular structure and function of genes

evolutionary psychology

the study of behavior and the mind using natural selection

natural selection

traits that lead to better survival are more likely be passed on

mutation

error in gene replication

consciousness

awareness of the self and environment

circadian rhythm

24 hour body rhythms

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep stage; vivid dreams commonly occur; muscles are relaxed but the mind is active

alpha waves

slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

sleep

natural loss of consciousness

hallucinations

false sensory experiences (seeing something when there’s no visual stimulus)

delta waves

large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

NREM sleep

all sleep stages except for REM

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks; may lapse directly into REM sleep

sleep apnea

temporary stopping of breathing during sleep and repeated (momentary) awakenings

night terrors

high arousal and terrified appearance; occur during sleep Stage 4 and are rarely remembered

dream

images, emotions, and thoughts that go through a sleeping person’s mind; hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incontinuities; the dreamer blindly accepts what’s happening but may have difficulty remembering it after

manifest content

(Freud) remembered story line of a dream

latent content

(Freud) underlying meaning of a dream

REM rebound

REM sleep to increasing after REM sleep deprivation (caused by waking up repeatedly during REM sleep)

hypnosis

hypnotist suggests to a subject that certain perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

posthypnotic suggestion

suggestion, made during hypnosis, that will be carried out when the subject is not hypnotized; used to help control undesired symptoms and begaviors

dissociation

allows some thoughts and behavors to occur simultaneously with others

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perception/ mood

tolerance

the diminishing effect of the same drug after regular uses; user must take larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

withdrawl

discomfort and distress that follow after stopping the use of an addictive drug

physical dependence

marked by unpleasant withdrawl symptoms when drug is stopped

psychological dependence

mental/emotional need to use a drug (ex

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use

depressants

reduce neural activity and slow body functions (alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates)

barbiturates

depress the activity of the CNS; reduces anxiety but impaires memory and judgement