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what were the main development in the US, 1840-1860
US vastly expanded over a large spatial scale
mass migrations were seen in the west
to the states of Oregon and California
and to the Deep South
manifest destiny definition
belief that the US expansion
was both justified
and inevitable
push factors for American expansion, 1783-1838
economic factor
1832 - bank collapses cause financial crisis
this event caused unemployment
encouraging people to move and try their luck in a different location
this lead to competition for land in the east
increasing land prices in highly settled areas
pull factors for American expansion, 1783-1838
safer routes to the west
more information and maps to allow for easier cross-continental travel
economic factor
there was a promotion of a ‘better’ life in the West
as there were more new resources and territory to profit off of
1848 - California territory was gained from Mexico
1848-1858 - rapid growth in gold industry
religious beliefs
Americans believed they had a duty to convert Native tribes to Christianity
some groups, like Mormons, desired religious freedom from US society
what area called is the ‘American West’
west of the Mississippi River
which Native American nation was living on the Plains
Lakota
Cheyenne
Seminoles
Cherokee
Choctaw
Crow
Mandan
Blackfoot
defining trait of Native Americans living on the Plains
nomadic
where did the Lakota originate from
northern tip of the Great Plain
by the Great Lakes
why did the Lakota move west
due to the infringement of the forced migration of the five ‘civilised tribes’ on their lands
caused by the 1830 Indian Removal Act
where did the Lakota move to
Lakota ended up in the Black Hills, Dakota
the presence of buffalos in the Black Hills caused the Lakota to become nomadic
as the buffalo were now their main food source
why were buffalo so important to the Lakota
the Lakota were not wasteful with the buffalo, using every part of the animal for various different reasons
buffalos provided meat, drink, shelter and clothes
the Lakota were also able to trade buffalo fur and meat to gain horses and guns from white settlers
buffalo were the heart of the Lakota economy
what beliefs/customs did the Lakota have
Buffalo dance
used by the Lakota to call to the spirit world for a successful buffalo hunt
Wakan Tanka
believed in this Great Spirit
circles
circles were seen as an important symbol in Lakota culture
circular symbols can be observed in the Lakota’s clothes and jewellery
spirits
believed all living things have their own spirit, which originated from earth
freedom of the land
belief in the spirit of living things caused the Lakota to believe that no one could own land
this created cultural conflict between white settlers and the Lakota as the white settlers were disregarding this principle
equality
all individuals within the Lakota nation were to be respected and valued
why were the Lakota considered one of the strongest tribes on the Plains, 1840-1860
due to their equestrian skills
describe what happened to the Native American population, 1800-1900
1800 - Native American population c.600,000
1900 - Native American population c.300,00
caused by
the genocide of Indigenous people
the tragedy of the Trail of Tears
white settlers introducing new diseases such as cholera and typhoid to the Native American population
white settlers depleting Native American food sources
explain the effect of disease on the Plains tribes
Europeans travelling west brought introduced Native American populations to new diseases such as cholera, typhoid and smallpox
due to the close-knit nature of Native American communities and their biological lack of resistance to these disease, swathes of Indigenous people were killed
1795 - 30/32 villagers Arikara villages died from an outbreak of smallpox
this killed approximately 3500/4000 soldiers
1850 - half the Indian population in Mississippi Valley died due to a smallpox epidemic
explain how disease was a key reason for the changing habits of the Plains tribes
epidemics and disease outbreaks killed large percentages of Native American populations
shift from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle
the deaths of the appointed hunters within the tribes would have meant tribes would have settled in places with sources nearby, such as near forts or trading posts
change in economic practices
as many tribes became sedentary, they had to trade increasingly with white settlers for resources such as firearms, metal tools and food supplies
causing a shift in dependency of these tribes from self-sufficient to relying on external sources to survive
impact on cultural practices
the death of large swathes of Native Americans was usually of the tribe Elders, who held the tribes knowledge
with their deaths, countless traditional practices and beliefs were lost
causing a change in cultural practices within the tribes
explain how horses was a key reason for the changing habits of the Plains tribes
economic impacts
horses provided tribes with enhanced hunting and mobility, allowing them to pursue buffalos more successfully, increasing the success of hunts
increased mobility allowed the tribes to travel greater distances, allowing for the possibility of trade and wider resource access
social/cultural impacts
horses became symbols of wealth within tribes, with them being used as common courtship gifts to promote the social standing of a man
horses became deeply ingrained in the culture of the tribes, influencing stories, ceremonies and art
warfare changes
horses provided a military advantages for the tribes, with the horses mobility allowing for more strategic and effective military tactics, meaning tribes could conduct raids and defend their territory easier
explain how trade was a key reason for the changing habits of the Plains tribes
economic impacts
before European contact, tribes such as the Shoshone and Crow traded between their nations across vast distances
the arrival of European trades brought new resources such as guns, metal utensils and textiles which became highly sought after
this caused tribes to shift their traditional practices to incorporate these new resources
trade changed the survivability of the tribes from self-sufficient to trade-reliant as tribes began to rely more on the trade for their essential goods
this caused a change in tribe priorities form hunting to trading
social/cultural impacts
gifts were often exchanged within tribes, with the new resources available from trading acting as symbols of wealth and desirable gifts to receive
trade often led to the cultural exchange of ideologies and beliefs between Europeans and Native Americans
this often caused a change in Indigenous customs, with the incorporation of new cultural elements
military alliances
due to the increased trading relationships between Native Americans and Europeans, many often formed alliances based on mutual interest
this caused military disparity between tribes, as those able to access trade and goods would have the advantages in conflicts
describe the leadership and organisation of the Apache
Apache were a nomadic group
their socioeconomic lives evolved around the buffalo populations
both men and women were respected within the tribe
only men were chosen as band leaders, but women held other important roles in the tribe
describe the food source of the Apache
survived almost entirely on buffalo in the summer
and trade buffalo meat in winter for corn and other food resources
describe the shelter of the Apache
lived in buffalo-hide tents
describe the warfare of the Apache
used guns and horses
they raided settlement of the Navajo and Pueblo Indians, stealing their corn instead of trading for it
these raids caused them to be feared across the southwest Plains
describe the beliefs of the Apache
held strong beliefs about cleanliness
the Apache took frequent baths
this is influenced by the belief that baths cleansed their bodies of bad luck and evil spirits
beliefs in ancestors and the natural world
the Apache believed their ancestors were rock, trees, wind and other natural forms
thus when they prayed to spirits, they were praying to their ancestors
describe the relationships of the Apache with white settlers
Apache conducted a fierce resistance to white settlers
the Apache would conduct surprise assaults on white American populations
describe the leadership and organisation of the Cheyenne
organised into tribes and bands
each tribe/band was led by a warrior or trader
the Cheyenne were partially nomadic, but this was dependent on the specific tribe
some Cheyenne tribes settled near trading posts for access to resources
describe the food source of the Cheyenne
mainly ate buffalo
but also traded supplies with white settlers
describe the shelter of the Cheyenne
lived in tipis made of buffalo fur and skin
describe the warfare of the Cheyenne
fought on horseback, using bows and guns
young men learned to fight from childhood
had warrior societies, such as the Dog Soldiers
describe the beliefs of the Cheyenne
belief in the ‘All Being’
Novahose Hills
`Cheyenne believed these hills were the sacred centre of Cheyenne lands
belief that they Cheyenne were a ‘called out people’
describe the relationships of the Cheyenne with white settlers
Cheyenne viewed trade with white Americans as key to their survival on the Plains
some Cheyenne members married into white trading families
describe the leadership and organisation of the Nez Perce
organised into villages
each village elected a headman, based on his ability to organise and negotiate trade
lived a sedentary lifestyle
describe the food source of the Nez Perce
hunted buffalo on the Plains in the summer
ate fish and camas roots in the winter
describe the shelter of the Nez Perce
lived in huts in the winter
lived in tipis in the summer
describe the warfare of the Nez Perce
fought on horseback, but only during summer buffalo hunts
warrior societies were less influential than headmen
describe the beliefs of the Nez Perce
Bitterroot Mountains
believed it was imperative they stayed near these mountains as they saw this area as their sacred home
freedom of land
believed land could not be bought or sold by people
describe the relationships of the Nez Perce with white settlers
Nez Perce were friendly with white Americans
1804-1805 - they helped to rescue the Lewis and Clark expedition
1830
Indian Removal Act
Andrew Jackson pressured 46,000 Plains Indians to move west of the Mississippi River into ‘Indian Territory’
Jackson promised the tribes would not have to migrate from these lands
the route taken was the ‘Trail of Tears’
1834
Indian Trade and Intercourse Act
meant Indian Territory was now ALL to the west of the Mississippi River
the US government undermined the Native American’s sovereignty with this legislation
the Permanent Indian Frontier was created
it was a border between the Indians and the white settlers
this stopped white settlers from setting on Indian land, also stopping the trading of guns or alcohol to Native Americans
1848
America defeats Mexico and gains land (new state of Texas)
1851
Indian Appropriation Act
the US government placed Indigenous people into ‘reservations’ where they would be restricted and thus not able to live their same nomadic lifestyle
state the number of white settlers migrating west over the Great Plains, 1850-1860
1850 - 105,000 people had migrated
1860 - 443,000 people had migrated
explain how the 1830s financial crisis caused the mass migration of white settlers west
financial crisis causes banking collapses and unemployment
1837 - big downturn in the USA economy
banks collapsing caused wages to decrease, causing unemployment to rise
this caused many to believe they had nothing else to lose by moving westward
explain how land hunger caused the mass migration of white settlers west
white settlers hoped to create profit on rich farming lands in the far west
early explorers to the region had said the land was perfect for farming
land in the east was largely owned by rich speculators, causing the costs of rent or to buy land in the east to be extremely high
1841
Pre-emption Act
explain how the 18341 Pre-emption Act caused the mass migration of white settlers west
the Act applied to Oregon
it meant that farmers who built their houses and cleared trees would be given the first opportunity to buy the surrounding land
this Act made it hard for land speculators to buy land and sell it at accelerated prices
explain how the belief in Manifest Destiny caused the mass migration of white settlers west
1845 - journalists and politicians began to suggest the idea of ‘Manifest Destiny’ in the east
this was the belief that it was the job of white settlers to settle the entirety of North America
this stemmed from the religious ideologies of white settlers being ‘chosen’ by God for this task and their need to convert the Native Americans to Christianity
explain how maps and guides caused the mass migration of white settlers west
1840 - explorers had mapped 2000 miles worth of routes and trails for settlers to travel along to the reach the Far West
this caused a mass migration west as settlers felt more secure travelling the journey
describe the journey of white settlers Far West
settlers either took the Oregon Trail or the California Trail
the journey west took 8 months and covered 2400 miles
before setting off, migrants would build wagons pulled by oxen and stock up a number of key provisions
migrants would typically set off in Spring because the snow would have melted
migrants often travelled together in groups of wagons, called trains
the journey would typically follow the Platte River across the Plains, covering just under 18 miles per day
migrants would rest and restock at either Fort Laramie or Fort Kearny
the middle phase of the journey was through the Sierra Mountains, with peaks up to 4500m high
at Fort Hall, migrants had to decide whether they would take the northern route to Oregon or the southern route to California
the southern route to California passed through the Sierra Nevada desert region
whereas the northern route passed through the Blue Mountains
what agreements did Indigenous peoples strike with the American government
1851 - Lakota, northern Cheyenne, Arapaho and Crow nations granted the USA the rights to establish forts and safe routes across the Plains
this was in exchange as compensation for white settler’s damage done to the hunting of Native Americans
1853 - many of the southern Native American tribes made similar agreements with the US government
why did many nations resent the treatment of the Lakota
the Lakota negotiated hard with the US as the migration trails cut their hunting land in half
in the end, the Lakota were granted greater hunting rights on the south side of the trails
this outraged many smaller tribes as they disagreed with the favourable treatment of the Lakota Nation
what agreements were signed with the Yakima in Oregon, 1855
1855 - US government signed treaties with the Yakima to give up huge swathes of land for US settlement
what were the consequences of the Yakima’s 1855 agreement with the US
according to the Treaty, US settlement was supposed to be delayed for 2 years
but colonists were on the land within 12 days of the Treaty being signed
who was Joseph Smith
founded the Mormon Church
claimed he’d been visited by an angel, who told him where to find golden plates
these golden plates were inscribed with messages of Mormonism, which were later transcribed into the Book of Mormon
1831 - Mormon Church had more than 1,000 followers
this is significant as this prompted Smith to decide to move these followers to set up a City of God
who was Brigham Young
leader of the Mormon Church
Born 1801-1877
explain why the Mormons wanted to migrate away from US settlements
they wanted to escape the Gentiles (non-Mormons)
the Gentiles and US government persecuted Mormons
1846 - Brigham Young told the US president, James K. Polk that the Mormons had decided to leave the country for the sake of peace
1838 - Governor Lilburn Boggs issued an exterminating order against Mormons
state governor of Illinois asked the Mormons to leave the state
explain the significance of Brigham Young’s influence on the migration of Mormons west
Young was a firm believer, with an iron will and a passion for organisation
he was believed by the Mormons to be their prophet, appointed by God to lead them
this is significant as it meant the Mormons were more than willing to follow Young west to Utah
Young decided to go to Salt Lake, telling his followers that Salt Lake was 'the “promised land”
describe Mormons travels west, 1831
destination = Kirtland, Ohio
Mormons were attracted to Kirtland as it was a new start away from New York State, where Joseph Smith lived
1831 - Smith was tarred and feathered by locals
1837 - economic depression caused the bank Smith had founded to go bankrupt
these reasons caused the Mormons to be pushed out of the city
describe Mormon travels west, 1837
destination = Missouri
Mormons were attracted to the areas as few people lived there, offering the Mormons some sanctuary
Mormons were attacked by mobs in Missouri, with Governor Boggs issuing an extermination order against the Mormons
the Mormons angered locals by speaking out against slavery and in favour of Native American rights
describe Mormon travels west, 1839
destination = Nauvoo, Illinois
Mormons were attracted to the swamp area here as it avoided most settlers
Mormons were hated by the locals, especially when Smith began to sanction polygamy
1844 - Smith was killed by a mob
this caused the Mormons to flee Illinois, to avoid persecution
describe Mormon travels west, 1847
destination = Great Salt Lake
Mormons were attracted to the area as it was described as an ‘unpopulous’ country, where a ‘good living will require hard labour and consequently will be coveted by no other people’
explain the problems on the Mormons’ journey to Salt Lake
poorly prepared
Spring 1846 - mobs looted Mormons’ workshops
this forced them to leave Nauvoo before they were ready for their long trek to Salt Lake
the journey
Mormons faced a journey of 2,250km, which made them ‘weary and footsore’
Mormons also endured ‘stormy weather’ in winter and ‘excessive heat’ in summer
organisation
on the journey, 15,000 Mormons faced accidents, breakdowns, mouldy food, fever and a lack of medical facilities
Mormons were also subject to hostile Native American attacks
faint hearts
Some Mormons preferred Oregon or California, stating ‘nobody on earth’ would want to live at Salt Lake
explain the solutions on the Mormons’ journey to Salt Lake
pioneers - solution to being properly prepared
Brigham Young sent advance pioneers ahead to plant crops, build houses and set up staging posts for the travellers
defence - solution to organisational issues
Young taught Mormons how to manage a wagon train
he also taught them how to defend themselves against attacks at night
Young’s confidence - solution to faint hearts
Young said: “If there is a place on this earth that nobody wants, that’s place I’m looking for”
describe the Mormons’ problems at Salt Lake
Mormons were tired out and worried after the 2,250km journey
Salt Lake was a desolate and forsaken spot, with little rain, lowering the Mormons’ morale
“the climate is severe and unchangeable […] the cattle die […] frost is very destructive” - unknown Mormon traveller
describe the solutions Mormon’s created at Salt Lake
Mormons developed irrigation schemes using snow water from the mountains
1859 - Salt Lake was well-filled with peach, apple and other fruit
Mormons made houses from mud bricks as there were no trees
1855 - there were ‘warm, comfortable, neat’ houses and a ‘magnificent city, with a temple, a tabernacle and hall’
Brigham Young called Mormons from all over the world to come to Salt Lake to help out, as there were not enough people in the community to make the city entirely self-sufficient
this caused a mass migration of global Mormons to Salt Lake
made essential item by hands, as there were no manufacturers
what happened to Salt Lake in 1848
US occupied New Mexico, where Salt Lake was situated
US government refused Young’s attempt to have a ‘free and independent’ Mormon state called ‘Deseret’
1857 - 120 members of a wagon trains were murdered by Mormon militiamen
in response, the US government sent in 1,500 troops
eventually, a compromise was reached and the state of Utah was created for the Mormons
1840s-1850s
1 in 10 white migrants died along the Oregon Trail
January 1848
men working at John Sutter’s mill came across a gold mine in the Sierra Nevada mountains
December 1848
President Polk confirmed reports that gold was from the new eastern territory of California
1849
50,000 Americans migrated to California
1850
law introduced that states that any Indigenous person who proved that they don’t have a job
could be arrested and sold into slavery
1852
nearly all the surface gold in California was gone
108 crushing mills dominated the Californian gold industry
1858
gold was found in Kansas
1859
100,000 people migrated to Kansas
explain James Marshall’s role in the Gold Rush
Marshall was the first person to find a gold mine in California
this incited men to travel to the Sierra Nevada mountains to try their luck with the lucrative gold mining
explain James Polk’s role in the Gold Rush
Polk confirmed that reporting of gold being found in California was true
without this, the mass migration of settlers to California would not have been as prominent
explain Levi Strauss’ role in the Gold Rush
made profit off of providing hardwearing denim trousers to gold miners
this helped boost cotton production in the South
also allowing more men to go gold mining since they had the proper equipment
explain the impact of the Gold Rush on the Native Americans
1848 - some Native Americans worked at gold diggings
however they were soon exploited and murdered by white miners
Governor Burnett (California) declared: ‘a war of extermination will continue to be wages between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct’
1850s - law introduced that caused unemployed Native Americans to be sold into slavery
Native Americans land was harmed by the impacts of gold mining, causing some tribes to struggle to survive
explain the impact of the Gold Rush on immigrants in the West
popularity of gold mining in the West caused the formation of mining towns
San Francisco, one of these mining towns, expanded rapidly, becoming a major city and thriving port
the security of this city would have enticed more white settlers to travel west
explain the impact of the Gold Rush on America
causes continental demand for railroad links
to allow for economically-viable trade
what are they key differences between the gold rushes in Kansas and California
gold rush in Kansas had more funding from the government, thus it was not solely individual led
more people were willing to migrate for the gold rush in Kansas
Kansas - 100,000 people migrated
California - 50,000 people migrated
explain the impact of the Pike’s Peak gold rush on the white Americans’ visions of the Great Plains
pre 1858 gold rush - the Great Plains were seen as a region to pass through rather than settle in
after the 1858 gold rush, potential was seen in the land yet to be mass-colonised by white settlers
towns such as St Joseph which were once seen as safe hubs along the 2,000 mile journey west, were now seen as hubs for promising land in the central continent
explain the impact of the Pike’s Peak gold rush on the relations of white settlers with Native Americans
the gold rushes opened up the American perspective to the promise of land in the Great Plains
this resulted in the formation of cities such as Denver, which took over land from the Arapaho and southern Cheyenne nations
this caused competition between Indigenous populations and white Americans for grazing land
this resulted in the Cheyenne and Arapaho being forced further from their lands to hunt in the summer
September 1859 - Cheyenne and Arapaho leaders met US authorities at Fort Laramie
the Arapaho leader stated: ‘our old people and little children are hungry […] our sufferings are increasing every winter’
5 days later, September 1859 - a Kiowa rode into a shop in white settled Colorado, spitting blood into the shopkeeper’s face
this was a sign of more blood to come between white Americans and Native Americans
