visions of the west - making of america (1839-1860)

what were the main development in the US, 1840-1860

• US vastly expanded over a large spatial scale

• mass migrations were seen in the west

• to the states of Oregon and California

• and to the Deep South

manifest destiny definition

• belief that the US expansion

• was both justified

• and inevitable

push factors for American expansion, 1783-1838

• economic factor

  • 1832 - bank collapses cause financial crisis

  • this event caused unemployment

  • encouraging people to move and try their luck in a different location

  • this lead to competition for land in the east

  • increasing land prices in highly settled areas

pull factors for American expansion, 1783-1838

• safer routes to the west

  • more information and maps to allow for easier cross-continental travel

• economic factor

  • there was a promotion of a ‘better’ life in the West

  • as there were more new resources and territory to profit off of

  • 1848 - California territory was gained from Mexico

  • 1848-1858 - rapid growth in gold industry

• religious beliefs

  • Americans believed they had a duty to convert Native tribes to Christianity

  • some groups, like Mormons, desired religious freedom from US society

what area called is the ‘American West’

west of the Mississippi River

which Native American nation was living on the Plains

• Lakota

• Cheyenne

• Seminoles

• Cherokee

• Choctaw

• Crow

• Mandan

• Blackfoot

defining trait of Native Americans living on the Plains

nomadic

where did the Lakota originate from

• northern tip of the Great Plain

• by the Great Lakes

why did the Lakota move west

• due to the infringement of the forced migration of the five ‘civilised tribes’ on their lands

• caused by the 1830 Indian Removal Act

where did the Lakota move to

• Lakota ended up in the Black Hills, Dakota

• the presence of buffalos in the Black Hills caused the Lakota to become nomadic

• as the buffalo were now their main food source

why were buffalo so important to the Lakota

• the Lakota were not wasteful with the buffalo, using every part of the animal for various different reasons

• buffalos provided meat, drink, shelter and clothes

• the Lakota were also able to trade buffalo fur and meat to gain horses and guns from white settlers

• buffalo were the heart of the Lakota economy

what beliefs/customs did the Lakota have

• Buffalo dance

  • used by the Lakota to call to the spirit world for a successful buffalo hunt

• Wakan Tanka

  • believed in this Great Spirit

• circles

  • circles were seen as an important symbol in Lakota culture

  • circular symbols can be observed in the Lakota’s clothes and jewellery

• spirits

  • believed all living things have their own spirit, which originated from earth

• freedom of the land

  • belief in the spirit of living things caused the Lakota to believe that no one could own land

  • this created cultural conflict between white settlers and the Lakota as the white settlers were disregarding this principle

• equality

  • all individuals within the Lakota nation were to be respected and valued

why were the Lakota considered one of the strongest tribes on the Plains, 1840-1860

due to their equestrian skills

describe what happened to the Native American population, 1800-1900

• 1800 - Native American population c.600,000

• 1900 - Native American population c.300,000

• caused by

• the genocide of Indigenous people

• the tragedy of the Trail of Tears

• white settlers introducing new diseases such as cholera and typhoid to the Native American population

• white settlers depleting Native American food sources

explain the effect of disease on the Plains tribes

• Europeans travelling west brought introduced Native American populations to new diseases such as cholera, typhoid and smallpox

• due to the close-knit nature of Native American communities and their biological lack of resistance to these disease, swathes of Indigenous people were killed

• 1795 - 30/32 villagers Arikara villages died from an outbreak of smallpox

  • this killed approximately 3500/4000 soldiers

• 1850 - half the Indian population in Mississippi Valley died due to a smallpox epidemic

explain how disease was a key reason for the changing habits of the Plains tribes

• epidemics and disease outbreaks killed large percentages of Native American populations

• shift from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle

  • the deaths of the appointed hunters within the tribes would have meant tribes would have settled in places with sources nearby, such as near forts or trading posts

• change in economic practices

  • as many tribes became sedentary, they had to trade increasingly with white settlers for resources such as firearms, metal tools and food supplies

  • causing a shift in dependency of these tribes from self-sufficient to relying on external sources to survive

• impact on cultural practices

  • the death of large swathes of Native Americans was usually of the tribe Elders, who held the tribes knowledge

  • with their deaths, countless traditional practices and beliefs were lost

  • causing a change in cultural practices within the tribes

explain how horses was a key reason for the changing habits of the Plains tribes

• economic impacts

  • horses provided tribes with enhanced hunting and mobility, allowing them to pursue buffalos more successfully, increasing the success of hunts

  • increased mobility allowed the tribes to travel greater distances, allowing for the possibility of trade and wider resource access

• social/cultural impacts

  • horses became symbols of wealth within tribes, with them being used as common courtship gifts to promote the social standing of a man

  • horses became deeply ingrained in the culture of the tribes, influencing stories, ceremonies and art

• warfare changes

  • horses provided a military advantages for the tribes, with the horses mobility allowing for more strategic and effective military tactics, meaning tribes could conduct raids and defend their territory easier

explain how trade was a key reason for the changing habits of the Plains tribes

• economic impacts

  • before European contact, tribes such as the Shoshone and Crow traded between their nations across vast distances

    • the arrival of European trades brought new resources such as guns, metal utensils and textiles which became highly sought after

    • this caused tribes to shift their traditional practices to incorporate these new resources

  • trade changed the survivability of the tribes from self-sufficient to trade-reliant as tribes began to rely more on the trade for their essential goods

    • this caused a change in tribe priorities form hunting to trading

• social/cultural impacts

  • gifts were often exchanged within tribes, with the new resources available from trading acting as symbols of wealth and desirable gifts to receive

  • trade often led to the cultural exchange of ideologies and beliefs between Europeans and Native Americans

    • this often caused a change in Indigenous customs, with the incorporation of new cultural elements

• military alliances

  • due to the increased trading relationships between Native Americans and Europeans, many often formed alliances based on mutual interest

    • this caused military disparity between tribes, as those able to access trade and goods would have the advantages in conflicts

describe the leadership and organisation of the Apache

• Apache were a nomadic group

  • their socioeconomic lives evolved around the buffalo populations

• both men and women were respected within the tribe

• only men were chosen as band leaders, but women held other important roles in the tribe

describe the food source of the Apache

• survived almost entirely on buffalo in the summer

• and trade buffalo meat in winter for corn and other food resources

describe the shelter of the Apache

lived in buffalo-hide tents

describe the warfare of the Apache

• used guns and horses

• they raided settlement of the Navajo and Pueblo Indians, stealing their corn instead of trading for it

  • these raids caused them to be feared across the southwest Plains

describe the beliefs of the Apache

• held strong beliefs about cleanliness

  • the Apache took frequent baths

  • this is influenced by the belief that baths cleansed their bodies of bad luck and evil spirits

• beliefs in ancestors and the natural world

  • the Apache believed their ancestors were rock, trees, wind and other natural forms

  • thus when they prayed to spirits, they were praying to their ancestors

describe the relationships of the Apache with white settlers

• Apache conducted a fierce resistance to white settlers

• the Apache would conduct surprise assaults on white American populations

describe the leadership and organisation of the Cheyenne

• organised into tribes and bands

• each tribe/band was led by a warrior or trader

• the Cheyenne were partially nomadic, but this was dependent on the specific tribe

  • some Cheyenne tribes settled near trading posts for access to resources

describe the food source of the Cheyenne

• mainly ate buffalo

• but also traded supplies with white settlers

describe the shelter of the Cheyenne

lived in tipis made of buffalo fur and skin

describe the warfare of the Cheyenne

• fought on horseback, using bows and guns

• young men learned to fight from childhood

• had warrior societies, such as the Dog Soldiers

describe the beliefs of the Cheyenne

• belief in the ‘All Being’

• Novahose Hills

  • `Cheyenne believed these hills were the sacred centre of Cheyenne lands

• belief that they Cheyenne were a ‘called out people’

describe the relationships of the Cheyenne with white settlers

• Cheyenne viewed trade with white Americans as key to their survival on the Plains

• some Cheyenne members married into white trading families

describe the leadership and organisation of the Nez Perce

• organised into villages

• each village elected a headman, based on his ability to organise and negotiate trade

• lived a sedentary lifestyle

describe the food source of the Nez Perce

• hunted buffalo on the Plains in the summer

• ate fish and camas roots in the winter

describe the shelter of the Nez Perce

• lived in huts in the winter

• lived in tipis in the summer

describe the warfare of the Nez Perce

• fought on horseback, but only during summer buffalo hunts

• warrior societies were less influential than headmen

describe the beliefs of the Nez Perce

• Bitterroot Mountains

  • believed it was imperative they stayed near these mountains as they saw this area as their sacred home

• freedom of land

  • believed land could not be bought or sold by people

describe the relationships of the Nez Perce with white settlers

• Nez Perce were friendly with white Americans

• 1804-1805 - they helped to rescue the Lewis and Clark expedition

1830

• Indian Removal Act

• Andrew Jackson pressured 46,000 Plains Indians to move west of the Mississippi River into ‘Indian Territory’

• Jackson promised the tribes would not have to migrate from these lands

• the route taken was the ‘Trail of Tears’

1834

• Indian Trade and Intercourse Act

• meant Indian Territory was now ALL to the west of the Mississippi River

• the US government undermined the Native American’s sovereignty with this legislation

• the Permanent Indian Frontier was created

• it was a border between the Indians and the white settlers

• this stopped white settlers from setting on Indian land, also stopping the trading of guns or alcohol to Native Americans

1848

America defeats Mexico and gains land (new state of Texas)

1851

• Indian Appropriation Act

• the US government placed Indigenous people into ‘reservations’ where they would be restricted and thus not able to live their same nomadic lifestyle

state the number of white settlers migrating west over the Great Plains, 1850-1860

• 1850 - 105,000 people had migrated

• 1860 - 443,000 people had migrated

explain how the 1830s financial crisis caused the mass migration of white settlers west

• financial crisis causes banking collapses and unemployment

• 1837 - big downturn in the USA economy

• banks collapsing caused wages to decrease, causing unemployment to rise

• this caused many to believe they had nothing else to lose by moving westward

explain how land hunger caused the mass migration of white settlers west

• white settlers hoped to create profit on rich farming lands in the far west

• early explorers to the region had said the land was perfect for farming

• land in the east was largely owned by rich speculators, causing the costs of rent or to buy land in the east to be extremely high

1841

Pre-emption Act

explain how the 1841 Pre-emption Act caused the mass migration of white settlers west

• the Act applied to Oregon

• it meant that farmers who built their houses and cleared trees would be given the first opportunity to buy the surrounding land

• this Act made it hard for land speculators to buy land and sell it at accelerated prices

explain how the belief in Manifest Destiny caused the mass migration of white settlers west

• 1845 - journalists and politicians began to suggest the idea of ‘Manifest Destiny’ in the east

• this was the belief that it was the job of white settlers to settle the entirety of North America

• this stemmed from the religious ideologies of white settlers being ‘chosen’ by God for this task and their need to convert the Native Americans to Christianity

explain how maps and guides caused the mass migration of white settlers west

• 1840 - explorers had mapped 2000 miles worth of routes and trails for settlers to travel along to the reach the Far West

• this caused a mass migration west as settlers felt more secure travelling the journey

describe the journey of white settlers Far West

• settlers either took the Oregon Trail or the California Trail

• the journey west took 8 months and covered 2400 miles

• before setting off, migrants would build wagons pulled by oxen and stock up a number of key provisions

• migrants would typically set off in Spring because the snow would have melted

• migrants often travelled together in groups of wagons, called trains

• the journey would typically follow the Platte River across the Plains, covering just under 18 miles per day

• migrants would rest and restock at either Fort Laramie or Fort Kearny

• the middle phase of the journey was through the Sierra Mountains, with peaks up to 4500m high

• at Fort Hall, migrants had to decide whether they would take the northern route to Oregon or the southern route to California

• the southern route to California passed through the Sierra Nevada desert region

• whereas the northern route passed through the Blue Mountains

what agreements did Indigenous peoples strike with the American government

• 1851 - Lakota, northern Cheyenne, Arapaho and Crow nations granted the USA the rights to establish forts and safe routes across the Plains

  • this was in exchange as compensation for white settler’s damage done to the hunting of Native Americans

• 1853 - many of the southern Native American tribes made similar agreements with the US government

why did many nations resent the treatment of the Lakota

• the Lakota negotiated hard with the US as the migration trails cut their hunting land in half

• in the end, the Lakota were granted greater hunting rights on the south side of the trails

• this outraged many smaller tribes as they disagreed with the favourable treatment of the Lakota Nation

what agreements were signed with the Yakima in Oregon, 1855

1855 - US government signed treaties with the Yakima to give up huge swathes of land for US settlement

what were the consequences of the Yakima’s 1855 agreement with the US

• according to the Treaty, US settlement was supposed to be delayed for 2 years

• but colonists were on the land within 12 days of the Treaty being signed

who was Joseph Smith

• founded the Mormon Church

• claimed he’d been visited by an angel, who told him where to find golden plates

• these golden plates were inscribed with messages of Mormonism, which were later transcribed into the Book of Mormon

• 1831 - Mormon Church had more than 1,000 followers

  • this is significant as this prompted Smith to decide to move these followers to set up a City of God

who was Brigham Young

• leader of the Mormon Church

• Born 1801-1877

explain why the Mormons wanted to migrate away from US settlements

• they wanted to escape the Gentiles (non-Mormons)

• the Gentiles and US government persecuted Mormons

  • 1846 - Brigham Young told the US president, James K. Polk that the Mormons had decided to leave the country for the sake of peace

  • 1838 - Governor Lilburn Boggs issued an exterminating order against Mormons

  • state governor of Illinois asked the Mormons to leave the state

explain the significance of Brigham Young’s influence on the migration of Mormons west

• Young was a firm believer, with an iron will and a passion for organisation

• he was believed by the Mormons to be their prophet, appointed by God to lead them

  • this is significant as it meant the Mormons were more than willing to follow Young west to Utah

• Young decided to go to Salt Lake, telling his followers that Salt Lake was 'the “promised land”

describe Mormons travels west, 1831

• destination = Kirtland, Ohio

• Mormons were attracted to Kirtland as it was a new start away from New York State, where Joseph Smith lived

• 1831 - Smith was tarred and feathered by locals

• 1837 - economic depression caused the bank Smith had founded to go bankrupt

• these reasons caused the Mormons to be pushed out of the city

describe Mormon travels west, 1837

• destination = Missouri

• Mormons were attracted to the areas as few people lived there, offering the Mormons some sanctuary

• Mormons were attacked by mobs in Missouri, with Governor Boggs issuing an extermination order against the Mormons

  • the Mormons angered locals by speaking out against slavery and in favour of Native American rights

describe Mormon travels west, 1839

• destination = Nauvoo, Illinois

• Mormons were attracted to the swamp area here as it avoided most settlers

• Mormons were hated by the locals, especially when Smith began to sanction polygamy

• 1844 - Smith was killed by a mob

  • this caused the Mormons to flee Illinois, to avoid persecution

describe Mormon travels west, 1847

• destination = Great Salt Lake

• Mormons were attracted to the area as it was described as an ‘unpopulous’ country, where a ‘good living will require hard labour and consequently will be coveted by no other people’

explain the problems on the Mormons’ journey to Salt Lake

• poorly prepared

  • Spring 1846 - mobs looted Mormons’ workshops

  • this forced them to leave Nauvoo before they were ready for their long trek to Salt Lake

• the journey

  • Mormons faced a journey of 2,250km, which made them ‘weary and footsore’

  • Mormons also endured ‘stormy weather’ in winter and ‘excessive heat’ in summer

• organisation

  • on the journey, 15,000 Mormons faced accidents, breakdowns, mouldy food, fever and a lack of medical facilities

  • Mormons were also subject to hostile Native American attacks

• faint hearts

  • Some Mormons preferred Oregon or California, stating ‘nobody on earth’ would want to live at Salt Lake

explain the solutions on the Mormons’ journey to Salt Lake

• pioneers - solution to being properly prepared

  • Brigham Young sent advance pioneers ahead to plant crops, build houses and set up staging posts for the travellers

• defence - solution to organisational issues

  • Young taught Mormons how to manage a wagon train

  • he also taught them how to defend themselves against attacks at night

• Young’s confidence - solution to faint hearts

  • Young said: “If there is a place on this earth that nobody wants, that’s place I’m looking for”

describe the Mormons’ problems at Salt Lake

• Mormons were tired out and worried after the 2,250km journey

• Salt Lake was a desolate and forsaken spot, with little rain, lowering the Mormons’ morale

  • “the climate is severe and unchangeable […] the cattle die […] frost is very destructive” - unknown Mormon traveller

describe the solutions Mormon’s created at Salt Lake

• Mormons developed irrigation schemes using snow water from the mountains

  • 1859 - Salt Lake was well-filled with peach, apple and other fruit

• Mormons made houses from mud bricks as there were no trees

  • 1855 - there were ‘warm, comfortable, neat’ houses and a ‘magnificent city, with a temple, a tabernacle and hall’

• Brigham Young called Mormons from all over the world to come to Salt Lake to help out, as there were not enough people in the community to make the city entirely self-sufficient

  • this caused a mass migration of global Mormons to Salt Lake

• made essential item by hands, as there were no manufacturers

what happened to Salt Lake in 1848

• US occupied New Mexico, where Salt Lake was situated

• US government refused Young’s attempt to have a ‘free and independent’ Mormon state called ‘Deseret’

• 1857 - 120 members of a wagon trains were murdered by Mormon militiamen

  • in response, the US government sent in 1,500 troops

  • eventually, a compromise was reached and the state of Utah was created for the Mormons

1840s-1850s

1 in 10 white migrants died along the Oregon Trail

January 1848

men working at John Sutter’s mill came across a gold mine in the Sierra Nevada mountains

December 1848

President Polk confirmed reports that gold was from the new eastern territory of California

1849

50,000 Americans migrated to California

1850

• law introduced that states that any Indigenous person who proved that they don’t have a job

• could be arrested and sold into slavery

1852

• nearly all the surface gold in California was gone

• 108 crushing mills dominated the Californian gold industry

1858

gold was found in Kansas

1859

100,000 people migrated to Kansas

explain James Marshall’s role in the Gold Rush

• Marshall was the first person to find a gold mine in California

• this incited men to travel to the Sierra Nevada mountains to try their luck with the lucrative gold mining

explain James Polk’s role in the Gold Rush

• Polk confirmed that reporting of gold being found in California was true

• without this, the mass migration of settlers to California would not have been as prominent

explain Levi Strauss’ role in the Gold Rush

• made profit off of providing hardwearing denim trousers to gold miners

• this helped boost cotton production in the South

• also allowing more men to go gold mining since they had the proper equipment

explain the impact of the Gold Rush on the Native Americans

• 1848 - some Native Americans worked at gold diggings

  • however they were soon exploited and murdered by white miners

• Governor Burnett (California) declared: ‘a war of extermination will continue to be wages between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct’

• 1850s - law introduced that caused unemployed Native Americans to be sold into slavery

• Native Americans land was harmed by the impacts of gold mining, causing some tribes to struggle to survive

explain the impact of the Gold Rush on immigrants in the West

• popularity of gold mining in the West caused the formation of mining towns

• San Francisco, one of these mining towns, expanded rapidly, becoming a major city and thriving port

  • the security of this city would have enticed more white settlers to travel west

explain the impact of the Gold Rush on America

• causes continental demand for railroad links

• to allow for economically-viable trade

what are they key differences between the gold rushes in Kansas and California

• gold rush in Kansas had more funding from the government, thus it was not solely individual led

• more people were willing to migrate for the gold rush in Kansas

  • Kansas - 100,000 people migrated

  • California - 50,000 people migrated

explain the impact of the Pike’s Peak gold rush on the white Americans’ visions of the Great Plains

• pre 1858 gold rush - the Great Plains were seen as a region to pass through rather than settle in

• after the 1858 gold rush, potential was seen in the land yet to be mass-colonised by white settlers

  • towns such as St Joseph which were once seen as safe hubs along the 2,000 mile journey west, were now seen as hubs for promising land in the central continent

explain the impact of the Pike’s Peak gold rush on the relations of white settlers with Native Americans

• the gold rushes opened up the American perspective to the promise of land in the Great Plains

  • this resulted in the formation of cities such as Denver, which took over land from the Arapaho and southern Cheyenne nations

  • this caused competition between Indigenous populations and white Americans for grazing land

  • this resulted in the Cheyenne and Arapaho being forced further from their lands to hunt in the summer

  • September 1859 - Cheyenne and Arapaho leaders met US authorities at Fort Laramie

    • the Arapaho leader stated: ‘our old people and little children are hungry […] our sufferings are increasing every winter’

  • 5 days later, September 1859 - a Kiowa rode into a shop in white settled Colorado, spitting blood into the shopkeeper’s face

    • this was a sign of more blood to come between white Americans and Native Americans