Nature of government

What was central

What was Bloody Sunday?

After the defeat in the Russo-Japanese war protests included student riots and terrorist assassinations - these efforts culminated in the massacre of peaceful demonstrators at the hands of soldiers of the imperial guard

What was the Tsarist response to the unrest of 1905?

The October manifesto

What did the October manifesto promise?

Promised civil liberties

Why did the actual constitutional changes to the Fundamental laws of 1906 not fully live up to the promises of the October manifesto?

Nicholas II had motive to undermine the October manifesto as he was a committed autocrat and the fundamental laws allowed the re-establishment of Tsarist supreme power

What were Nicholas IIs Dumas?

Dumas gathered until 1917 and consisted of a diverse range of representatives - Nicholas II remained the right to dismiss the dumas as he did with the first, second and later the fourth all with the flimsiest excuses

What was the impact of World War One on the Tsarist system?

the war was placing considerable pressure on the economy and society which in turn created massive political challenges that eventually led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the installation of the provisional government

What were the biggest issues being faced during WW1?

* Real wages plummeted
* Food and fuel supplies were diminished
* Concern about the role of the Tsarina - She was German and seemed under the spell of Rasputin

What was the relationship between the provisional government and the Petrograd Soviet?

There was early cooperation between the provisional government and the Petrograd soviet despite bizarre power sharing arrangement

It was in the interests of both organisations to tolerate each other whilst the PG completed its task

What was the aim of the PG?

Organise elections for the constituent assembly that would have full democratic credentials and be able to establish a new democratic political system

How successful were the PG in achieving its aims?

There were some early progressive measures such as granting full civil and religious freedoms, the replacement of Tsarist police, full recognition of trade unions and an amnesty for political prisoners

What were the limitations to the success of the provisional government?

The pressures created by fighting in world war one and the need to deal with land reforms led to events that would cause a revolution within months Wh

What was the impact of the pressure the PG faced?

The PG was forced to become more right wing as the Petrograd soviet - increasingly under Bolshevik domination- swung to the left and its power bolstered by the numerous soviets springing up

In the increasing chaos power almost fell to Lenin and the Bolsheviks

What was the Kornilov affair?

General Kornilov earing the war effort would be lost due to unrest informed Kerensky he is to march to Petrograd with loyal troops - Kerensky panicked and released Bolsheviks from prison and gave them weapons to defend Petrograd

When did the Bolsheviks introduce a new constitution?

July 1918

What was the all Russian congress of soviets?

Meeting of representatives from all Russian soviets

What made it possible for the Bolsheviks to dominate the all Russian congress of soviets?

Right wing SRs and Mensheviks walked out of the congress in protest leaving little opposition

Why did the Bolsheviks continue with holding elections for a constituent assembly?

They had hoped to gain votes however the SRs were more successful and Lenin dismissed these unfavourable results as a product of the old regime

What was the decree on land?

The decree on land Nov 1917 sanctioned the requisition of private land by peasants but stated the division and distribution could only be carried out by village soviets

Why did the punitive Treaty of Brest-Litovsk become essentially meaningless by November 1918?

Germanys campaign on the Western front had collapsed and the German army soon withdraw from Russia entirely

What would have happened if the new regime had been a soviet government in the truest sense?

It would have been more democratic

What was Democratic centralism?

The system under Lenin and to some extent under Stalin was sometimes referred to as Democratic Centralism - the idea that the people would agree to be led by a small group of key personnel until a genuine workers government could be put in place

What were in theory the democratic credentials of the 1936 constitution?

Introduction of a more organised voting system for the new Supreme soviet of the USSR

Republics could administer their own education systems meaning people could develop cultural identity

What made it clear that the communist party still dominated?

The passing of article 126 made it clear that the part was “the nucleus of all the public and state organisations of the working people”

This provision was used to justify banning all other parties from functioning in the soviet union and legalizing the one party state

What was the constitution like until 1977?

Other than further territorial additions the constitution remained unchanged until 1977

Despite Khrushchev’s de-stalinisation the organisation and structure of government remained virtually the same

Despite the constitutional continuity what was central administration like under Khrushchev?

Khrushchev continued with the same constitution but applied it differently and with liberating tendencies

Despite his apparent commitment to avoiding control by person, Khrushchev made enemies in the politburo because he tried to take to much control of Russia without consulting them - he did not have enough power to prevent party establishment

In what ways is Khrushchev’s autocracy evident?

His autocracy is illustrated by his brutal repression during the Hungarian uprising of 1956 and his anti church policies

What was local government like before 1861?

Before 1861 provinces were mainly under the control of noble landowners and village issues were discussed by the mir

What changed the structure of local government after 1861?

The emancipation of the serfs - nobility ceased to play a formal political role and the management of local affairs was left to local police constables

What was introduced in 1864?

Alexander II introduced the Zemstva - Complex voting systems ensured dominance by the middle and upper classes

What was introduced in 1870?

An Urban equivalent of the Zemstva called the Duma - which was tougher to get into and and excluded the urban proletariat

Why were Urban proletariat excluded from the Duma?

They could have created a revolution

They were more likely to be literate

Why did Alexander II not fully deserve the title Tsar liberator?

Engaged in limited liberal reform to appease the proletariat but did so through systems that were ultimately autocratic which protected autocracy

What happened to the Zemstva and Duma after 1917?

Became soviets/overtaken by soviets

What did Alexander III introduce?

Alexander III bought in land captains in order to re-establish the power of local nobility

They were later abolished by NII to quell public discontent

Before October 1917 what were the Zemstva and Duma responsible for?

Before October 1917 the Zemstva and Duma flourished at local level they were responsible for planning and providing important services in education, public health and transport - added pressure to democratise

What was Central governments attitude to the Zemstva?

Central government found the Zemstva irritating

Lower classes had status that CG feared/ did not believe was desrved

What was the Third Element?

Increasingly middle class intellectuals and professionals within the Zemstva demanded that central government should be remodelled on the lines of the Zemstva and the Duma - This liberal voice became known as the third element

What were the origins of the soviets?

* The first workers council (soviet) emerged in St Petersburg during the unrest of 1905 with the aim of coordinating strikes and protecting factory workers
* SRs and SDs looked to gain representation in these soviets further developing their links with the Urban proletariat

What were the soviets ‘in power’ like during the era of the provisional governement?

From March to October 1917 it can be seen that the Petrograd soviet largely controlled Russia as a part of the bizarre dual power arrangement with the provisional government

What examples of the Petrograd soviet power is there?

The Petrograd soviet was able to organise strikes and control essential services through its contacts and members amongst the proletariat

Petrograd soviet order no.1 placed ultimate authority over soldiers in the hands of the soviet

Why did the first order from the Soviet involve the armed forces?

Authority enforced control to prevent revolution/rebellion - did not want to be used against the revolution

Lack of trust in the provisional government (closest thing to democracy)

What was local government like under Lenin in theory?

Under Lenin in theory connections between the organs of state and the soviets were products of a chain of elections from the ‘grass roots’ up which allowed democratic credibility o be maintained through the all Russian congress of soviets

What was local government like under Lenin in practice?

In practice Bolsheviks dominated soviets and therefore all organs of state

What was local government like under Stalin in theory?

In theory Soviets gave the government a sense of democracy and allowed people to develop their own cultural identity

What was Central government like under Stalin in practice?

Stalinist government ultimately was dominant and used methods of repression and terror to maintain this dominance

All other parties were banned which ultimately led to a one party state and abuse of system

What was local government like under Khrushchev?

There was no significant systematic change under Khrushchev but his policies influenced by de-stalinisation led to a big drop in the use of repression and terror in domestic weak

What was the Judicial system like in Russia?

Russian legal system remained archaic compared with systems in the west

Before Alexander II there was no legal system or independent judiciary - the nobility were the sytem

What changes to legal system did Alexander II make?

The judicial **reform instituted the modern criminal trial based on the principle of equality of the parties**

What was set up in 1877?

A new department of the senate was set up to try political cases - this was confusing measure as it was a backtrack on previous legal reform as Alexander II started to take more advice from conservatives after an assassination attempt and continued opposition from the intelligencia

What did Vera Zasulich do and what did it reveal about Alexander II’s legal system?

An outraged political revolutionary, Vera Zasulich, shot the govenor of St Petersburg. The jury were sympathetic to the atrocities of Trepov and found Zasulich not guilty - This tested the effectiveness of the Judicial reform and the courts ability to stand up to authorities

What were changes to the judiciary like under Alexander III?

Changes under Alexander III were indicative of his reactionary attitude - Increased autocracy and government intervention in law courts

What changes were made under Nicholas II?

Abolished land captains but no significant changes were made under Nicholas II

What was revolutionary justice?

The concept of ‘revolutionary justice’ provided justification for increased repression under both Lenin and Stalin

What was put in place in 1921?

A new criminal code was put in place to deter crime - Stalin’s approach generally involved widening scope of what could be defined as crime as well as the severity of punishment

What was the judiciary like under Khrushchev?

There was a comparative ‘thaw’ in terms of the use of oppression in all levels of Government under Khrushchev

What was repression like under Alexander II?

Replaced the third section with the softer department of state police known as the Okhrana

What was repression like under Alexander III?

He enhanced the power of the Okhrana to put pressure on the growth of revolutionary parties and clamped down on censorship meaning material had to be checked before as opposed to after

What was repression like under Nicholas II?

Despite increasing reliance on the secret police he relaxed censorship which damaged his reputation

He did not have sufficient control of the army so was unable to keep the peace and maintain control in February 1917

What was repression like under Lenin?

The Cheka implemented the red terror where individuals were sent to labour camps

However, Lenin enforcing war communism in this case could be seen as a practical response to the temporary state of emergency created by the civil war

What was repression like under Stalin?

The secret police under Stalin known as the the NVKD instigated a permanent and pervasive atmosphere of terror - they administered purges and helped administer the gulags where around 40 million people were sent across the Stalinist period Most political and cultural contributors to the revolution itself had been eliminated and the secret police had effectively purge themselves

What was repression like under Khrushchev?

Khrushchev made clear gestures towards reducing repression however the army were brutally used to quell the Hungarian uprising in 1956 - number of political arrests plummeted

What were external opposition to the Tsar?

Populists

Peoples will

Socialist revolutionaries

Social democrats

The liberals

The Kadets and Octoberists

What was opposition like before 1917?

Opposition to tsarism before February 1917 was divided between those who wanted change within the tsarist system and those who wanted to overthrow it.

The major political changes promised by the October Manifesto were largely cancelled out by the Fundamental Laws of 1906, and the Romanov dynasty remained intact until Nicholas II found it impossible to cope with the effects of the First World War.

The lack of effective opposition before 1917 was due partly to the control exerted by successive tsars, but also to the lack of unity within and between opposition groups.

What was opposition like under the Tsars?

Despite the promise of elections for the constituent assembly that would design a new democratic form of government and a raft of immediate democratising measures the provisional government faced considerable opposition during its short time in power

What was the most immediate concern for the provisional government?

The most immediate concern was the growing strength of the workers committees, soviets and the Petrograd soviet

Why was the Petrograd soviet such a threat to the PG?

The Petrograd soviet had control of army, transport and communications - over time the Bolsheviks came to dominate their soviets as the privations of war intensified and their message became more relevant it is likely that many soviets had been subject to Bolshevik propaganda

What was external opposition like under the communists?

Only really had to confront opposition from other parties during the consolidation of power and the civil war

After the elections for the constituent assembly it was clear that the SRs were the party most in the consciousness of the Russian people - Lenin dismissed these unfavourable results as a product of the old regime

What was Lenin’s response to both internal and external opposition?

In response to both internal and external opposition Lenin presented a paper on ‘party unity’ in 1921 making a clear statement about his justification for making all other parties illegal and banning factionalism within the party itself - henceforth Russia was a one party state with no significant formal opposition

What was external opposition like under Stalin?

The situation under Lenin was fully reinforced by Stalin’s imposition of a terror state and continued beyond 1964 despite Khrushchev’s commitment to de-Stalinisation with the exception of land maintained

What was the significance of opposition under the Communists?

* Famine under Alexander III was a living memory - feared the Bolsheviks taking food
* Opposition was significant for a short period as it forced Lenin to adapt
* After the Kronstadt rebellion, introduction of the NEP

Why was internal opposition less of an issue for the Tsars than for the communists?

The Tsarist regime was autocratic and members of central administration were appointed by the Tsar and represented the Tsarist establishment

Under Alexander II individuals were insecure about his rule

What tension was there between Tsar Nicholas II and Witte?

* Witte upset many in the aristocracy as he was a meritocrat
* Witte was critical of Nicholas II in the lead up to the Russo-Japanese war

What happened to Witte as a result of of the tension wit Nicholas II?

He was demoted

Why did Nicholas II not remove Witte permanently from significant roles in government?

NII liked his intellect he came to help in 1905 with the October manifesto and aided in the prevention of unrest in Russia

Why was internal opposition/tension more of an issue for Nicholas than Alexander II or III?

Nicholas II faced tension as tougher times and intense industrialisation put pressure on him to modernise and he was viewed as less fit to rule

What was internal opposition like under Lenin?

During Lenin’s stewardship, there were a number of occasions when internal disagreement may have threatened to derail the revolutionary movement

What occasions may have threatened to derail the revolutionary movement?

* a number of prominent Bolsheviks, including Kamenev, Zinoviev and Rykov, called for a coalition to be formed with other socialist groups. Although some left-wing SRs were allowed to join ranks - Lenin bullied his Bolshevik colleagues into rejecting an alliance with opposing political groups.
* The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was opposed by the left, especially Trotsky. Lenin countered his opponents by claiming that the war would soon be over
* The adoption of War Communism during the Civil War was considered harsh by some party members. Lenin conceded to pressure for change and introduced his NEP. This heightened tensions and widened divisions. Right Bolsheviks favoured this temporary concession towards capitalism, while left Bolsheviks saw it as a betrayal of revolutionary principles.

How was Lenin less radical than Stalin?

Whilst under Lenin government was supposed to be collaborative his repressive actions could be seen as concern about the methodology of the revolution

Whilst Lenin tolerated debate he was unwilling to make ideological compromise

How does Stalin consolidate his power after the death of Lenin?

It was assumed that victory in the civil war and the death of Lenin would result in collective leadership however Stalin emerged as the undisputed leader by gaining control of party machinery, creating and manipulating the cult of Lenin in his favour and taking advantage of the tactical errors of his opponents

What characterised Stalin’s purges in the 1930’s?

* Members who failed to implement collectivisation or disagreed with Stalin’s attempt to liquidate the Kulaks, lost their party card declining membership by about a tenth
* From mid 1930s some prominent politburo members were exiled and executed after being called oppositionists

Why did some balk at the policy on collectivisation?

* Collectivisation meant the destruction of peasantry and many believed it was too fast and would not be successful
* The end result of collectivisation was disastrous disruption of agricultural productivity and a catastrophic famine

What was controversial about the attempt to liquidate the Kulaks as a class?

It was evidently scapegoating and Kulaks were a target as they could resist the transformation

What was Stalin’s motive in highlighting those he believed to be resisting the pace of industrialisation?

He could be rid of his rivals that stood in the way of Russia winning the war

Why did many believe Stalin was responsible for the death of Kirov?

He was quick to arrest and ‘question’ his murderers

Stalin perceived Kirov as a threat to his plans and position

Why was Stalin less concerned/paranoid at the start of world war two?

Almost all political enemies were dead or gone

How effective was internal opposition under Stalin?

Opposition was not successful under Stalin. He was sometimes referred to as a ‘grey blur’ and was underestimated by any political opposition. Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev and Bukharin were all sidelined, discredited, expelled, isolated, accused of treachery and eradicated by 1940

Mass purges of party membership followed the removal of high ranking political rivals.

All radical plans implemented with no significant compromise regardless of opposition

What is the minor exception to the rule that there was no opposition under Stalin?

The Maisky diaries provides evidence that this view of Stalin may have been exaggerated

Some officials such as Maisky were able to voice their opinion and were listened to without being persecuted

What was internal opposition like under Khrushchev?

Relaxation on state oppression allowed dissent to grow, opposition successfully removed him in 1964

Criticism of admired Stalin caused internal party opposition

What was peasant opposition like?

Peasant opposition ranging from mass demonstration to full scale rioting - mainly as a result of land distribution and access to food- was prevalent from the time of Alexander II all the way through to Khrushchev