U4 AP Psych

Attributions

explanations for behavior and mental processes

Dispositional Attributions

Relate to internal qualities; relatively unchanging

Situational Attributions:

Relate to external circumstances; temporary

fundamental attribution error

when we overestimate the effect of dispositional factors in an individual's behavior; underestimate the effect of situational factors (power of the environment or situation)

Explanatory style

how people explain good and bad events in their lives and others

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing positive events to

internal factors and negative events to external factors

- external causes

-relatively temporary

-specific

Pessimistic Explanatory Style:

Attributing negative events

to internal factors and positive events to external factors

-personal causes

-permanent causes

-pervasive

Availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind

ex: thinking plane crashes are common after seeing one in the news

Representativeness heuristic

categorizing something based on how similar it is to a stereotype rather than using actual probabilities

ex: assuming someone is a librarian because they are quiet and love books

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Anchoring bias

a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Locus of Control

the amount of control people perceive they have over events or conditions in their lives

Internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Actor/Observer Bias

Tendency to attribute our own actions to

situational factors, but others' actions to dispositional factors

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing our successes to internal factors and failures to external factors

mere exposure effect

when people are exposed

to a stimulus repeatedly over time, leading to increased liking

self-fulfilling prophecy

when people behave in ways that elicit

behaviors from others that confirm their beliefs or perceptions

Social comparison

when people evaluate themselves based on comparisons to others

Upward Comparison

Comparing oneself to those who are better off

Downward Comparison

Comparing oneself to those who are worse off

Relative Deprivation

Feeling deprived based on comparisons

attitudes

a settled way of thinking or feeling about someone or something, typically one that is reflected in a person's behavior.

stereotype

mental shortcuts (heuristics) in thinking that alleviate cognitive load

- most = negative and exaggerated

- influence attitudes about groups

prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

implicit attitude

individuals hold but may be unaware of or may not acknowledge

just-world phenomenon

belief that people "get what they deserve", justifying inequality

- good people = good things happen, vice versa

out-group homogeneity bias

tendency to see the members in other groups as having unfavorable attributes and characteristics

in-group bias

the tendency to favor one's own group over others

ethnocentrism

believing one's own cultures or group is superior to others

cognitive dissonance

mental discomfort that occurs when actions or attitudes are in conflict

cognitive dissonance -> attitudes

adjusting beliefs to align with actions

cognitive dissonance -> actions

modifying behavior/actions to align with beliefs

cognitive consistency

the state in which a person's thoughts and behaviors match his or her beliefs and the expectations of others

social norms

expectations and roles a society has for its members in individual and social situations

social influence theory

theory that powerful social influences can produce a state of hypnosis

elaboration likelihood model

2 main routes to persuasion : central and peripheral

central route (elm)

focuses on logical arguments and evidence; leads to long-lasting attitude change

Peripheral Route (ELM)

relies on superficial cues; leads to temp. attitude change

halo effect

type of peripheral route where one positive trait influences overall perception

foot-in-the-door technique

small request -> larger request

door-in-the-face technique

large request -> smaller request

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

group size (conformity)

Larger groups increase conformity

unanimity (conformity)

Agreement among all members of a group increases conformity

cohesion (conformity)

conformity increases with group solidarity

status (conformity)

Higher status people are more likely to influence conformity

public response (conformity)

People conform more when they must respond publicly

obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

authority presence (obedience)

physical presence of an authority incr. obedience

legitimacy (obedience)

perceived legitimacy of authority figure influences obedienve

proximity (obedience)

closeness to authority figure influences obedience

depersonalization (obedience)

reducing victim's personal connection increase obedience

lack of dissent (obedience)

absence of dissenting peers increases obedience

individualism

personal goals and individual achievement

collectivism

group goals and social harmony

multiculturalism

A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

diffusion of responsibility

reduced sense of personal responsibility in a group

social loafing

reduced effort by individuals in a group task

deindividuation

loss of self-awareness and restraint in groups

social facilitation

improved performance on simple tasks and worsened performance on complex tasks in presence of others

false consensus effect

overestimating the extent to which others share one's beliefs or behaviors

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

social traps

Situations where individual interests conflict with group interests, leading to collective harm

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

altruism

selfless behavior, often influenced by social norms

social reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present