AQA A-Level Religious Studies - Christianity, Migration and Religious Pluralism

What is migration?

movement of people from one place to another
migration has led to multicultural societies
multiculturalism has also led to religious diversity(significant different religions/religious beliefs within a society)

migration in Britain

-Until the 18th C, the only non-christian religion in Europe that people peacefully interacted with was Judaism.
-Many people migrated in the 1940s from Eastern Europe after WWII
-Many Indians and Pakistanis migrated after Indian Independence was declared in 1947
-In the 1950s there were labour shortages which encouraged immigration from the Caribbean and Hong Kong
-In the 21st century, immigration has continued due to the expansion of the EU and migrants crossing into Europe from North Africa, Afghanistan and refuges from the civil war in Syria
-As of 2022, there has been a more significant influx in Ukranian refugees as a result of war

Responses to multiculturalism in the past

-Immigration was viewed as a threat to traditional British values which they linked with Christianity.
-Enoch Powell's 1968(Conservative British MP) Rivers of Blood speech warning of disastrous results as a result of migration
"As I look ahead, I am filled with foreboding."
-On the other hand, many saw multiculturalism as an opportunity for enrichment. There was a desire to respect and protect all cultures and it was seen as a way of promoting tolerance and equal opportunities in all aspects of British life.

Define multiculturalism

the presence of several distinct cultural or ethnic groups within a society.

Diversity of faith in Britain today

2011 Census:

Christianity- 59.3%
No religion- 25.1%
Islam- 4.8%
Hinduism- 1.5%
Sikhism- 0.8%
Judaism- 0.5%
Buddhism- 0.4%

Influence of multiculturalism on Christian thought

-some Christians have responded to multiculturalism and religious diversity by adopting a more inclusivist approach
-for some Christians e.g. Evangelical protestants, it provides them with more of an opportunity to spread the gospel those groups- led to different cultural churches

what did the 2011 census show?

-a continuing decline in numbers of those declaring they were Christian, in 2011 it was around 59%
-a rise in no religion, around 25% and in Muslims, around 5%
-statistics for Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism and Buddhism also showed an increase
-in the 2021 census, around 46% of people identified as Christians
-in 2021, the number of people belonging to no religion was 37.2%
-increases in the number of people who identified as Muslim and Hindu

Is all of Britain diverse?

No. Diversity is not seen in all parts of Britain.
Some areas of Britain are still monocultural. This is because when people migrate, they tend to settle in groups and in places where employment will be readily found.

E.g Manchester's Chinatown 1950-60 immigration from Hong Kong due to small number of workers from china in early 20th C.

How have laws had an influence on religion?

Freedom of religion as a human right in European law, in article 9 of the European Convention of Human Rights (1950) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 18 states that 'everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion… in public or private' applies to 'theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs'
This belief is also part of British law within the 1998 Human Rights Act.
These laws allow for religious pluralism by making any attempts to ban or restrict the practice of religion illegal.

Britain as a secular state

Britian is a secular state which means that the government, legal system and society are independent of the teachings of religion.
As Britain is a secular state, different faiths(religious pluralism) and different cultures are present (multicultural).
A society in which religious pluralism is embraced is characterised by:
-exploring one another's traditions- this can be seen in some schools in the Uk e.g. WHSG holding Bollywood dance classes and having mochi making classes
-helping one another and respecting differences

what are some criticisms of multiculturalism and religious pluralism?

-Multiculturalism in extreme cases can threaten social cohesion as there may be no sense of common identity
-Certain practices carried out by some communities are illegal under British law and cause tensions e.g. FGM(female genital mutilation) and forced marriages
-Multiculturalism assumes that no culture can claim to be the best but a major reason why ppl belong to certain religions is because they believe it offers the best way of life.
-May be an issue when it comes to people with different beliefs having to face the same situation e.g. if there are two police officers who come from different cultures, the american police officer may feel that the criminal needs to be shot as they are a danger, whereas the British police officer may not

Issue of FGM and forced marriage

-FGM is practised in some communities in Africa, the middle east and Africa.
-Forced marriage is the practice of forcing a young person into a marriage without their consent.
-Society says these practices are illegal
-Some argue these practices are cultural expressions in specific religious communities and it should be the decision of the particular religious community as to whether it should be allows, not the secular law
-These are largely cultural issues however it can be difficult to separate religious and cultural practices

What are the 2 different Christian attitudes towards other faiths?

-Exclusivism
-Inclusivism

What is exclusivism in Christianity?

-The belief that Christianity (or a particular version of it) is the only true faith.
-Evangelical Christians believe the goal of human life is salvation from sin and going to heaven and is only possible through a personal relationship with Jesus
-There are several verses in the Bible that support this exclusivist view such as John 14:6

what is John 14:6

I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.
The face value interpretation of this verse is that salvation depends on absolute and explicit commitment to Jesus, truth is to be found exclusively in his teaching and way of life.

different exclusivist beliefs

-Some exclusivists make exceptions regarding the face value belief of John 14:6 e.g. they believe that children who die before they are able to make this commitment can be saved. This same belief was the reason for emergency baptisms.
-They believe that those who die never hearing ab Jesus will be judged on the conformity of their lives with the natural moral law that some Christians think is built into the fabric of the universe and accessible to everyone
-Fundamentalists take this verse to mean that salvation depends on declared belief in Christ. This makes evangelism a priority as they need to share the gospel with others and have them say the prayer of salvation/faith.
-The belief that God was unqiuely revealed in Christ and made a way for Christians to have a relationship w God is seen as a central truth to Christianity, which can be threatened if a non-exclusivist view is taken.
-Before Vatican II, the official view of the C. Church was that there is no salvation outside the Church

Acts 4:12- exclusivism

'Salvation is to be found through him alone in all the world, there is no-one whom God has given can save us'

Exclusivism- Catholic Ideas

'Extra Ecclesiam nulls salus' there is no salvation outside the church

criticisms of exclusivism

-if we take a fundamentalist approach, it limits God's unconditional love and forgiveness as this isn't extended to everyone, only those who believe in Jesus
-Seems contradictory with Jesus' teachings. Jesus showed unconditional love in his friendships and to people who were looked down on by Jewish society- Jesus was accepting of everyone. Some believe that the reason for this conflict may be because the authors of the NT did not always report what Jesus said, but they contained the author's beliefs. e.g. John's Gospels is thought of as showing his views about the significance for Christian belief of the portrayal of Jesus

what is inclusivism in Christianity?

Belief that other religions (or other denominations) may have aspects of belief that are the same or compatible with Christianity (or the true denomination) and are therfore true.
2 types: closed and open inclusivism
Closed inclusivism-takes the approach that one religion does contain all truth but that other religions have some aspects of it
Open inclusivism-adopts the approach that one religion has a better grasp of the truth than others, but not on all aspects, so it can learn from other religions.

Inclusivism in Luke/ Acts and Romans

-Inclusivism seems to be taken by the author of Luke/ Acts and by Paul in the book of Romans.
-In Romans, Paul stresses how God shows no favouritism- ROM 2 v11- 'God does not show favouritism'
-Inclusivists believe that salvation is open to all and is based on people's adherence/ rejection of the natural sense of morality that is an inbuilt feature of the world.
-Barth's view is based on his belief that human nature has been corrupted by the Fall and that everyone regardless of religion is totaly dependent for salvation by God's grace.

Karl Rahner

1904-84
German priest and theologian

Rahner's Anonymous Christian

-Catholic theologian
-popularised the term 'anonymous Christians
-belief that non-Christians are able to experience salvation
-this idea is an attempt to reflect the inclusive teaching and lifestyle of Jesus
-sees God's power as transcending human limitations caused by ignorance and error
-still believes that Christianity is the one absolute religion. Jesus died for human sin and enables people to be saved through grace. Jesus' death was necessary for salvation.
-God's grace is at work in all people and not limited to Christians
-Non-Christians may be saved through good moral conduct which is not dependent on belief in Christ, similar to justification by good works. Believed these non-Christians who behave in a Christian type way already have God's grace acting in their life and are anonymous Christians.
-believes that non-Christians have much in common with Christianity

strengths of Rahner's anoynmous Christians

-Closed inclusivist, more accepting of non-Christians than an exclusivist approach
-Still maintain that Christianity is the true religion
-With this view, the Church is not confined to the visible institution of the Church but is also made up of those whose behaviour and values reflect those of a Christian

criticisms of Rahner's anoynmous Christians

-Exclusivists believe that inclusivists depart from traditional Christianity and that they are interpreting the Bible differently from what it really says- for this reason, Fundamenalist Christians reject this view
-Some Liberal Christians e.g. John Hick accuse the view of paternalism. The view is insulting to other faiths which should be respected in their own right and not in terms of what they have in common w Christianity. Hick states that Rahner's view implies that other religions are flawed.

How do Christian denominations view each other?

-Toleration
-There has never been uniformity in the Church
-Acts of the Apostles and Paul's letters show how there were disagreements in the early days of the Church.
-Before the Great Schism(1054) when the Orthodox Churches split from the Western Church, there were many councils of bishops to deal w disagreements
-Disagreements within the chuch are over issues such as leadership, the authority and interpretation of the Bible, forms of worship and lifestyle caused a split in the church
-16th C reformation
-Today there are three broad divisions: Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Protestant

Definition of See

a diocese

the region and people under the control of a bishop

Beliefs of the C. Church

-The Apostolic Succession is the means of continuity with the teaching of Jesus' Apostles as the Church passes on their teaching in the Apstolic Tradition
-The Sacraments are the gifts bestowed on the Church as an act of divine grace.
-In their relationships with non-Catholic Christians, liberal Catholics adopt the approach of closed inclusivism.
believe that:
-other denominations reflect aspects of the Christian faith, refer to others as 'lost brethren'
-only the C Church however has true continuity and authority
-dialogue is encouraged with non- Catholics but not compromise

beliefs of the C of E

-Can be seen to be inclusivist because:
-engage in discussions with Christians who have widely varying outlook on issues and it is willing to compromise on non-essentials
-it recognises other Churches despite differences in structures
-unwiling to exclude other Christians from the possibility of salvation

beliefs of Protestant evangelical Churches

-tend to adopt an exclusivist approach based on faith
-salvation comes by the grace of God through faith which is a personal commitment to Christ as saviour- EPH 2:8- 'For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God'
-those who don't make this commitment to God have rejected His offer of salvation

what is the ecumenical movement?

Movement to restore unity among different Christian denominations
-In the UK, there is an annual Week of Prayer for Christian Unity led in JAN
-In 1948, the World Council of Churches was set up. Seeks to promote dialogue between the member Churches and a greater shared understanding of the Christian faith. The Roman Catholic Church is not part of the WCC but they do engage in dialogues about doctrine and practice

Hick's pluralism

-1922-2012
-Hick started off as a conservative evangelical but shifted to a position of religious pluralism.
-A universalist God's salvation is available to everybody
-Asserted that the religion of an individual is almost always an accident of birth.
-The relationship between humans and what he thought of as ultimate reality is shaped by history and culture
-it's a mistake to understand salvation in terms of the sacred writings of one particular religionand to adopt an exclusivist position
-rejects the concept of hell and it is incompatible with belief in the omnibenevolent God
-distinguished between the concept of ultimate reality and the widely differing views that humans have of that reality.
-he thought that religion was about self-transformation rather than ab believing certain teachings and practices are true. Ultimately believed that the differences and incompatibilities between religions are insignificant

Hick's universalism

-Hick viewed the purpose of human life as one of the soul-making/spiritual growth
-however, with this comes the Q of what happens to those who die without having fulfilled their purpose and to those who wreaked misery on earth
-Hick's response is that after death there will be future lives and in this other world, people can grow spiritually which will lead to eternity with God.
-rejects the teaching ab everlasting suffering seen in the parable of the Sheep and Goats

weaknesses of Hick's beliefs

-his ideas have not been widely accepted for multiple reasons:
-his claim that apparent incompatibilities are insignificant is invalid. e.g. the views and practices of some religious groups e.g. suicide cults are morally incompatible with those of any mainstream religion
-Christian traditionally thinks in terms of life, death, judgement and final state. Hick's idea of future states of existence after death doesn't fit in w this which leads many Christians to reject it.
-Universalism is unacceptable to evangelical Protestants though acceptable to some liberal Protestants
-most religions reject the view that religion is ab self transformation rather than the quest for truth

strengths of Hick's beliefs

-His ideas promote interfaith and interdenominational relations
-his views ab the cultural links between individuals and their religion encourage ppl to think ab the one-ness of human religious understanding and not just ab the differences between religions
-his views on the nature of religion and on universalism could strengthen interfaith and interdenominational relations.

what does interfaith relations mean?

refers to the relationship between different faiths

what is religious expression?

the ability to be able to show one's faith both publicly and privately

Christian responses to issues of freedom of religious expression

1. Evangelical christian's emphasise the importance of personal commitment to Christ. Prefer the separation of Church and State
2. Others see themselves as called to work for transformation of society. Christian responsibility to promote Christian values

Freedom of religious expression in Britain

-Christians like other faiths have been given the right to express their religious beliefs and views in soc
-Human Rights Act 1998 and Equality Act 2010
-This right isn't absolute. If the expression of their faith is harmful to others, can cause a breach of peace or expresses racial or religious hatred, then it breaches the law and is no longer a good thing
-Christians can express their beliefs in several ways but sometimes this expression can clash with legislation.

Uk cases when religious expression clashed with the law

-Nadia Eweida
-Shirley Chaplin
-Mr and Mrs Bull
-Margaret Jones

Nadia Eweida

• wore a lapel cross on British Airways Uniform- she argued that this expression of faith causes no harm, BA didn't want her wearing it because they believed that displays of religious affiliation were inappropriate in the work place- the legal decision was made in Nada's favour and it was decided that it didn't restrict anyone else's rights

-Shirley Chaplin

a nurse who wore a cross at work- she argued that this expression of faith causes no harm, NHS did not want her to wear her cross as it breached rules, the legal decision was made in favour of NHS, she couldn't wear the necklace because it is a health risk in hospital

Mr and Mrs Bull

Mr and Mrs Bull refused a room at their guesthouse to a gay couple, the owners only let rooms to married couples which upholds Christian teachings on sexual practice, the couple felt that this was an act of discrimination on sexual orientation grounds, the decision was made in favour of the couple as Mr and Mrs Bull's action was seen as a breach of sexual orientation regulations

Margaret Jones

-Margaret Jones, a registrar said she wouldn't conduct a same sex marriage, expression of her Christian beliefs ab marriage did not affect any couples. Arg against her right to religious expression was that conducting a ceremony did not prevent the essential feature of her faith. The legal decision was made in her favour.

questions that influenced the decisions made

-what is and what isn't an essential expression of faith?
-should religion be a personal matter or should it be upheld by public institutions?
-how can society resolve the tensions between people's legal right to be treated with equal respect under the 2010 Act and the legal right of Christians to freedom of religious expression?