A LEVEL: POLITICS - PAPER ONE

what is democracy?

Democracy literally means 'rule by the people.' It is the notion that the people affected by decisions are the ones who make those decisions

basic principles of democracy?

the right to a free and fair vote so that the government is considered legitimate, all votes being equal, majority rule (in the event of a disagreement, the most popular vote wins)

what is direct democracy?

-a form of democracy where there is o distinction between the government and the government

-citizens are able to directly vote on matters and policies as opposed to representative democracy

what is a form of direct democracy?

referendums (a vote on a single issue)

what is representative democracy?

that the people choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf- these being politicians.

what is the MP Recall Act (2015)?

-a process by which an MP can lose their seat in the House of Commons if there is a successful petition to recall them

-10% of constituents sign a petition

what is a case study where the MP Recall Act has been used?

Mike Amesbury recalled for assault and arrest, replaced b Sarah Pochin

how does the MP Recall Act show direct democracy?

-as the constituents' votes had a direct impact on the fate of the MP

-there was no representative so each vote mattered

how is the MP Recall Act good?

-the MPs are able to take accountability for their actions meaning they never have too much power

advantages of direct democracy?

-Direct democracy is 'real' democracy- the people choose the policies/laws they want. Decisions are therefore more legitimate

-Direct democracy means that politicians, who may be more motivated by self-interest, have less influence

-Direct democracy could have educational benefits- if people are voting directly on issues, this may motivate them to find out more about them, so become more politically aware

disadvantages of direct democracy?

-most citizens don't have expertise to make decisions on every issue

-practically unachievable in large modern societies

-no guarantee people would vote in large numbers in direct democracy as it would be time consuming voting every day for an issue

advantages of representative democracy?

-practical in a large system

-decisions are left in the hands of people who have much more knowledge/expertise

- helps to encourage people to accept compromise,

disadvantages of representative democracy?

- May lead to reduced participation as people choose to hand responsibility to politicians.

- Minorities may still find themselves under-represented as politicians are more likely to follow the views of the majority to secure election

- Politicians may be corrupt and incompetent, may betray election promises or put loyalty to their party before responsibility to the electorate.

similarities between direct and representative democracy?

-both direct democracies and representative democracies function according to the consent of the people

-both have leaders that can be removed from power

-both have laws that can be made and redacted.

what is a mandate in politics?

the people giving their authority to a political party to govern

what is a manifesto?

a document outlining the policies a party wishes tot enforce once they come into power

what is social representation?

-implies that the characteristics of members of representative bodies should be broadly in line with the characteristics of the population as a whole

-for example, just over half should be women, a representative proportion should be drawn from ethnic or religious minorities

example to support social representation?

-23% of MPs privately educated as opposed to 7%

-14% of BAME members of parliament opposed to 18%

what does it mean to represent the national interest?

-representatives in Parliament are expected to represent the interests of the nation as a whole and do what they believe is right, rather than what the people may want

example of representing national interest?

-an MP representing a constituency near a major airport may be under pressure to oppose further expansion on the grounds of noise/pollution but it may be in the national interest to expand the airport, such as Conservative Zac Goldsmith in his Richmond seat in 2016

what is constituency representation?

-a geographical area will have similar social and economic concerns that a representative will speak about in the elected body

example of constituency representation?

in PMQ's, MPs will ask specific questions about their constituencies like funding for a hospital

what is causal representation?

where representative bodies are not representing people so much as ideas, principles and causes

example of causal representation?

Sian Berry represents her constituency, but as the only member of the Green Party in the HoC she represents environmental issues too

what is occupational representation?

some elected representatives will represent not only their constituencies and parties, but also a particular occupational or social group

example of occupational representation?

David Lammy giving speeches addressing the Windrush scandal as he is a descendant (windrush scandal was where people like from the Carribeans had come over to work in the late 40s ish, and recently the gov sent them letters telling them to go home, even though they had lived here all their lives and some had even been born here)

advantages of representative democracy? #2

-constituency representation

-more informed decisions as they have more expertise

-2024 general election provided the most diverse House of Commons. Of the 650 MPs , 14% are from ethnic minorities, 40% are female and 11% are LGBT and the proportion of privately educated MPs had dropped to 23% which is the lowest that it's ever been

disadvantages of representative democracy? #2

-MPs are often disengaged from the public and so not adequately represent their interests. Powerful pressure groups and lobbyists and the London based media establish a self perpetuating Westminster bubble which disconnects the voters from their representatives

-MPs can have outside interests, including second jobs, which can further contribute to a conflict of interests and compromise their ability to fully represent their constituents e.g. Nigel Farage (MP Clacton) as leader of reform and social media influencer

-The social make up of Parliament is still primarily white, male, middle class. Critics suggest that the interests of poorer voters are poorly represented. The HoL is still unelected and so accountable to the public, further undermining Parliament's representative function

what is democratic deficit?

A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, not having been appointed with sufficient democratic input or subject to accountability.

pros and cons of free elections?

pros:

-nearly everyone over 16 can vote

-there is little electoral fraud and there exists strong legal safeguards

-the UK uses a secret ballot to ensure intimidation cannot be used

cons:

-if significant groups are excluded then elections can be contested

-in the UK there are campaigns for, prisoners and people with non-British nationalities to vote

pros and cons of widespread participation?

pros:

-Pluralist democracy is a term which means there are diverse methods of participation. Citizens can vote in general elections, referendums, join political parties and pressure groups, sign e-petitions and strike

cons:

-since 2001 voter turnout in general elections has been ,on average, lower than in previous elections, while party membership (especially among young people) has been in decline. Despite some increases in party membership after 2015, it is still below levels experienced in the 1950s

pros and cons of protection of rights and liberties?

pros:

-via Acts of Parliament rights have been established in the constitution (Human Rights Act 1998 and Equalities Act 2010) which means that the judiciary can act as checks on government and individual actions

cons:

-Parliament is sovereign, which means rights are at the mercy of the government with a strong majority in the HoC. The ECHR is not binding on the UK Parliament

pros and cons of replacing the HoL with an elected chamber?

pros:

-more democratically representative

cons:

-what replaces it might cause greater rivalry with the HoC, leading to gridlock in the political process

pros and cons of replacing FPTP with a more proportional one?

pros:

-more representative of the people

cons:

-proportional systems make coalitions more likely and harder to hold to account

-the systems are more complex and there wouldn't be a need of constituent MPs

pros and cons of digital democracy?

pros:

-quicker way of voting

-caters to younger votes

cons:

-may not be accessible to everyone

-not guaranteed to be in secret and so the possibility of voter manipulation will increase

-allegations of cyber interference in Western elections by Russia indicate that electronic voting is more open to fraud

format of Q1?

definition, 2 examples/case study, link to broader topic

what is a referendum?

a vote on a particular issue, usually requiring a yes/no response

major referendums since 1997?

1. 1997 - Scottish devolution referendums on whether there should be a Scottish Parliament and whether the Scottish Parliament should have tax varying powers

turnout = 60.4%

yes = 74%

no = 25%

2. 1997 - Welsh devolution

yes = 50.3%

no = 49.7%

3. 2011 - should further developed powers be given to the Welsh Assembly?

turnout = 35.6%

4. 2014 - Scottish Independance

turnout = 84.6%

5. 2016 - EU referendum

turnout = 72%

yes = 48.1%

no = 51.9%

what is a conclusion of the EU referendum investigation?

vote leave's referendum exceeded its £7 million spending limit

an implication of referendums?

-can be used for major constitutional change or a change to the way in which the UK is governed

-for example, the EU referendum result led to the resignation of the Prime Minister David Cameron, the election of Theresa May as Conservative leader, and the instillation of, in effect, a new government.

advantages of referendums?

-encourages participation which enhances legitimacy and consent in the political system

-the internet and social media have facilitated education which makes people more capable of making decisions

-provides a clear answer to political issues and the results have been successfully implemented, such as the creation of devolved bodies

-the management of referendums is overseen by the independence Electoral Commission in the same manner as elections, limiting gov manipulation

-limits gov power

disadvantages of referendums?

-the people may not understand complexities of an issue such as the consequences of leaving the EU or adopting a new electoral system

-referendums can also cause social rifts e.g. 2014 Scotland referendum

-Excessive use of referendums can result in undermining authority of representative democracy

-'Tyranny of majority', where the majority forces the minority to accept a change that is against their interests e.g. EU referendum states were 49% to 51%

-some questions should not be reduced to a simple yes/no answer, they are more complicated e.g. 2011 referendum of electoral reform

what is a pressure group?

an organised group of people that aims to influence the policies or actions of government

what is a sectional pressure group?

represent the interests of a particular group within society e.g. the Muslim Council of Britain

what is a cause pressure group?

a pressure group that exists to promote a particular cause e.g. Friends of the Earth

what is an insider pressure group?

has privileged access to government decision making e.g. the British Medical Association possess specialist info which gov will wish to consult

what is an outsider pressure group?

no special links with the government but seek to influence decision makers by mobilising public opinion e.g. the Gurkha Justice Campaign

how do pressure groups use idealogical compatibility?

-insider status can be vital in the success of a pressure group

-if a political decision maker decides its advantageous to consult with a pressure group then the group's influence will be guaranteed

A01: the British Medical Association (BMA) are called on by governments. Also, the government have been keen to advance the rights of gay people and therefore groups such as the LGBT Foundation are also achieving insider access.

how do pressure groups utilise popularity?

-some pressure groups influence government by taking their case directly to the public

-it can also be because they do not have the necessary funds to directly lobby decision makers and so need to mobilise support

A01: Social media provides new opportunities for pressure groups to engage with the public. Groups such as Amnesty International, Oxfam and the Friends of the Earth all appreciate the importance of having considerable internet influence.

Also, Stop the War Coalition demonstrated their hostility towards the proposed invasion of Iraq and held a large scale walk through London and speeches held in Hyde Park denouncing the proposed action.

how do pressure groups utilise methods and tactics?

-some pressure groups can choose to engage in civil disobedience in order to achieve their aims

-although risky it can create immediate publicity and then give rise to so much disruption that the gov are forced to make concessions

A01: In 1867 riots in Hyde Park demanding the extension of the franchise quickened the pace of parliamentary reform. Also, Plane Stupid invaded airports and blocked flights which delayed the Heathrow expansion.

functions of pressure groups?

-represent and promote the interests of certain sections of the community who feel they are not fully represented by parties and Parliament

-to inform and educate the public about key political issues

-to call gov to account over its performance in particular areas of policy

-Pressure groups provide a form of representation in the UK political system- they represent the interests of a particular group of people or represent the views on a particular issue. They are also a method of political participation. 40-50% of the UK population is a member of at least one pressure group.

-pressure groups are sometimes involved in policy formulation and implementation, through being insider groups. For example, the National Farmers' Union works with the Department for Rural Affairs to implement policies relating to farming and agriculture.

causal groups:

-seek to promote a particular cause

-cause may be broad, such as campaigning on environmental or human rights or groups promoting local issues

-e.g. Liberty, Friends of the Earth

sectional groups:

-seek to promote the interests of an occupation or another group in society

-some are hybrid in that they believe that by serving the interests of their own members and supporters e.g. unions representing teachers or doctors will argue that the interests of their members are also the interests of all of us

-better treated and better paid teachers and doctors etc will mean better education and health for all

-e.g. BMA, Age UK

advantages of pressure groups

-by providing functional representation, they prevent a 'tyranny of the majority' forming in society.

-remind governments how legislation might affect particular interests

-representation

-educate the public on the impact of decisions made in government and can mobilise public opinion in an influential manner

-advocates public interests between interests

-creates link between public and the government

-Some pressure groups have huge memberships which exceed those of the main political parties e.g. National Trust represents more than 2 million members while As of 2021, there were approximately 200,000 members in tory party

disadvantages of pressure groups

-can be driven by powerful vested interests which may conflict with the general will of the population as a whole

-pressure groups are ultimately based on popularity and funding, connections

-radical groups may undergo harmful methods and tactics that disrupt society e.g. Insulate Britain illegally blocking traffic on the M25 to protest for better insulation in housing in 2021

case study of how illegal methods for pressure groups has been effective:

Greenpeace

-destroyed GM crops to publicise the dangers

case study of illegal methods for pressure groups:

Fathers 4 Justice

-throwing purple paint at Tony Blair as he stood at the Commons Dispatch Box

ASH:

methods:

-conducts research and publicises existing research into the effects of tobacco

-shares this info with the government and the public

successes:

-persuading government to increase tax on tobacco to deter customers

-health warnings on cigarette packs

-restrictions on tobacco advertisement

failures:

-would like to go further on smoking bans and introduce regulations on e-cigarettes however not successful yet

the RMT union:

-objectives include the promotion of better pay and conditions for its members, including shorter hours and safer working environments

methods:

-negotiates contracts with major transport companies e.g. TFL

-lobbies governments for better legislative protection

-strikes

-mostly affiliated with the Labour Party and has in the past put up candidates for election

successes:

-securing bonus payments for workers during 2012 Olympics

-secured a £500 consolidation payment to all operational staff following the introduction of the Night Tube

failures:

-the gov remains committed to removing guards from trains however RMT are opposed to this on the grounds of safety

-despite long running campaigns against the closure of many ticket offices on the Tube network, the offices have been closed

What was the Gurkha Justice Campaign?

-aim of the group was to extended the rights to live in Britain to a retired Gurkhas

campaign strategy:

-Joanna Linley provided the GJC with powerful celebrity endorsement

-her leadership of a large delegation to present a petition signed by 250,000 to Downing Street generated highly positive media coverage and her constant pressure on Browns government created so much negative publicity that the gov decided to grant equal rights of residency to all Gurkhas

what is the Syrian refugee crisis and what does it show?

-shows how not just pressure groups can lead to a change in policy

-Cameron's attitude towards not admitting significant numbers of Syrian refugees to the UK was contested by pressure groups such as Amnesty International however this did little to no change

-however when shocking images were broadcast across the media of a Syrian boy drowned on a beach in Greece, this provoked outrage from MPs, religious leaders and council leaders

-4 million people singed an e-petition

-Cameron made concessions

what are think tanks?

-a body of experts brought together to collectively focus on a certain topic

-in carrying out the work of policy research, think tanks have replaced one of the traditional roles carried out by political parties

-this is advantageous as it means politics can be considered and developed away from public scrutiny and can be trsted before a party might adopt them as official policy

case study:

the IEA, a free market think tank with close links to the Conservative Party

-its critical of government measures to reduce or restrict harmful activities such as smoking banks, sugar taxes and has also called for the NHS to be replaced by a private, insurance based sustem

-one of its main donors is British American Tobacco which raises questions about whether or not the public policy research being carried out is in the interests of the public or the donors

what are lobbyists?

-a person who takes part in an organized attempt to influence legislators

-One feature is trying to persuade the gov to adopt new strategies for example in 2012 lobbyists developed a 'save out shops' campaign in conjunction with the NFRN and the ACS to persuade MPs to exempt local newsagents from new laws to keep tobacco products behind closed shutters

-gained public support and persuaded 80. MPs to back the exemption

-another desire is that they will arrange events for their clients to have an opportunity to meet with those in power. This can be through lobbyists meeting on behalf of their clients to directly persuade those in power in priv meetings. For example former foreign secretary Jack Straw claimed in 2015 that he had used his contacts in the EU to change sugar regulations on behalf of ED and F Man Holdings which paid him £60,000 per year.

why is there a participation crisis?

1. voter apathy

-mistrust

-lack of education

2. unfair voting system

-FPTP

-in 2019 general election 71% votes wasted

-parliament doesn't reflect the people

3. non traditional voting methods

4. 2 party state

gov scandals that have caused mistrust?

1. party gate

-political scandal in which many members of parliament, including then PM Boris Johnson, attended various parties during lockdown in 2020 and 2021 despite public health restrictions

2. sex scandals

Chris Pincher Conservative deputy chief whip resigned in June 2022 after reports that he drunkenly groped two men at a private club

what is voter apathy?

lack of interest in voting

what is franchise?

the right to vote

what is enfranchise?

giving the vote

what is the Great Reform Act 1832?

-created seats for urban areas such as Manchester and took away from rotten boroughs (area of land where no one lives in but elects MPs

-increased enfranchisement to over a million by allowing men who rented property above a certain value to vote too

what was the Second Reform Act 1867?

-borough householders enfranchised

-voting age 21

representation of the people act 1918?

-gave the vote to women over 30 with minimum property requirements.

-all men over 21

representation of the people act 1928?

lowered the voting age for women to 21

the representation of the people act 1969?

lowered the voting age to 18

Scottish 2014 voting reform?

16 year olds allowed to vote in referendum

arguments in favour of votes for 16 year olds?

-with the spread of citizenship education and social media young people more informed

-voting turnout among 18-24 year olds is very low. This may encourage more people to vote and become engaged in politics

-if one is old enough to serve in the army, consent or pay tax then on should be old enough to vote

-the radicalism of the very young could act as a useful balance to the extreme conservatism of elderly voters

arugments against 16 year olds voting?

-too young to make rational judgements

-many issues too complex for younger people to understand

-few people in this group pay tax so they have a lower stake in society

-the very young tend to be excessively radical as they have not had enough experiences to consider issues carefully

what should be done to reform the system?

-Changing the day for elections from Thursday to the weekend like mainland Europe.

-Allowing people to vote anywhere in their constituency, rather than insisting at a specific polling station.

-Allowing the vote to take place over several days.

-Suggestion of voting age being reduced from 18 to 16- done in Scottish referendum but not in practice in UK wide elections.

-compulsory voting

arguments for compulsory voting?

-turnout will increase - greater democratic legitimacy to a party or individuals within elections

-ensuring more sections of society are involved, decision makers would have to ensure that policies address the concerns of all parts of society, not just those who vote in large numbers e.g. less policies directed at 18-24 year olds as they don't vote

-makes people more informed

-it can be argued voting is a civic duty

what did David Winnick say about compulsory voting?

-in 2015, he raised the need for compulsory voting in the HOC

-he used the example of 44% of 18-24 year olds voting in 2010 GE

-however in 2017 GE 64% of this age group voted

what are civil liberties?

freedoms that protect against arbitrary government rule

what are civil rights?

rights and freedoms protected by the government

what is independence of judiciary?

judiciary is free from political interference

tip for development of rights:

in essay easy to make synoptic link to supreme court!

notable human rights:

1. HRA 1998

2. freedom of information act 2000

3. equality act 2010

HRA 1998:

-incorporated the ECHR into UK statute law

-meant that negative rights (allowed to do anything as long as it wasn't forbidden by law_) were replaced with positive rights

-as a result British citizens now possess clear statement of their civil liberties

freedom of information act 2000:

-this allows members of the public to access information that is held by public services

e.g. Fire, Police, Schools, Health Care

-public Services are required to publish information under this Act

-members of the public can request information under this Act

-it was through this act that the Daily Telegraph was able to publicise the expenses scandal 2009

equality act 2010:

legally protects people from discrimination in the workplace and in wider society based on protected characteristics

civil liberties groups?

-liberty

-amnesty international

Liberty:

successes:

-In 2017, Liberty brought a successful legal challenge to the Supreme Court against a loophole in the Equality Act which had allowed employers not to provide equal spousal provisions for same sex couples. The Supreme Court ruled the loophole was unlawful under EU law

-In August 2020, Liberty won a Court of Appeal ruling against the legal framework used by South Wales Police when using facial recognition technology

failures:

-Liberty has failed so far in its attempts to ban the use of facial recognition across the UK, which is still used by security organizations

-petitions and campaigns against lockdown in 2020 and 2021 failed

Amnesty International:

successes:

-following 2 major oil spills in Bodo, Nigeria in 2008 and 2009, AI campaigned for compensation for the 15,600 farmers and villagers who were directly impacted by the spill which was alleged to have resulted from negligence by oil company Shell. In 2015, Shell agreed to pay £84 million in compensation

-in 2013, AI used satellites to capture images of human rights abuses in Sudan, North Korea and Syria which helped to raise awareness and could be used for future court cases

failures:

-despite arranging 38,000 members in an online action and repeated calls for the international community to do something, China contains to detain Muslim groups

-failed in its aim to persuade the Vatican to remove its objections to abortion

what is a rights based culture?

all new legislation should be compliant with HRA

tensions within a rights based culture?

-judicial review has increased as judges can say it is incompatible with the HRA

-undermines parl sov

-parl sov also leads to tensions, as parl doesn't have to listen to judiciary

collective rights vs individual rights case studies?

1. Abu Qatada - attempts by gov to deport him were stopped for 8 years on the grounds that evidence against him might been acquired torture. This would have breached freedom from torture and right to a fair trial. He was eventually deported in 2014

2. In 2010, the Supreme Court declared that homosexuality could provide grounds for claiming asylum in the UK if the claimants were from countries where homosexuality was persecuted

3. Campbell v Mirror Group News Ltd - in 2001, the Mirror published pictures of Naomi Campbell leaving a clinic that dealt with narcotic addictions. This triggered a legal case that decided whether, in this case, the right to privacy outweighed the newspaper's right to freedom of expression. Initially the High Court ruled in favour of Campbell but the Court of Appeals overturned the decision and ruled in favour of the Mirror. The case was eventually settled in 2004 by the Law Lords who ruled in favour of Campbell.

4. Vaccine Passports - defied by 128 MPs, 100 of those being Conservative

what is a political party?

people with shared ideas who seek to control the government

major parties?

Conservatives, Labour, SNP

minor parties?

Lib Dems, Green Party, Democratic Unionist Party

nationalist parties?

SNP, Plaid Cymru

single issue parties?

Green party

functions of political parties?

1. making policy

2. representation

3. identifying leaders

making policy:

-the policy making function of the ruling party is the same as the policy making function of the government

-it involves not only civil servants, advisory units, private advisors etc.

-e.g. Dominic Cummings private advisor for Boris Johnson's gov (July 2019-November 2020)

-opposition can also influence policy

-through various committees and conferences, the membership can communicate what they would like to see as 'official' policy

-e..g Party conferences - held every September, membership and leadership combine for a few days at a resort to make speeches, network and formulate policy