All AOS 3 SAC Checklist Knowledge

An aim should

Be short, clear, simple, and explain the purpose of the experiment

Research hypothesis

Testable prediction between two variables, that includes IV, DV, population (focus group, or target audience) and predicted direction of results.
Must be in the past tense!

Controlled experiment

An experiment that successfully controls all variables so only the IV has an affect on the DV

Controlled variable

Variable considered to have affect on DV, so is controlled.

Independent Variable

Variable manipulated (controlled, selected or changed); we want to find its affect on dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

Variable measured for change due to Independent variable

What is operationalising a variable?

Specifying precisely how the variables will be measured or manipulated in a particular controlled experiment. Use data, numbers, and specifics.

The 3 types of research methods

EXPERIMENTAL:

• Experimental methods such as laboratory or field experiments

NON-EXPERIMENTAL:

• Correlational methods such as correlation studies or simulation studies
• Descriptive methods such as observational studies, self-reports (questionnaires and interviews), or case studies.

Experimental vs non-experimental research methods

Experimental involves manipulation of a variable, non-experimental does not.

Correlation studies

An investigation of the relationship between variables without manipulation. Usually involves looking at previously-gathered statistics.

E.g. Researcher obtains pre-existing temperature data and occurrence of violent crimes data to measure relationship between them.

PROS: Provides more real world application
CONS: No 'why'

Descriptive methods

Self report, observation without manipulation, case study into someone's actions or an event.

PROS: Cheap, easy
CONS: People can lie or hide things

Cross-sectional method

Analyses data from specific point in time, across multiple subgroups. No manipulation occurs.

E.g. Psychologist collects university student's data across different majors to compare difference between academic stress and coping strategies.

PROS: Inexpensive and easy
CONS: No context of what happened before, can't show 'why' of relationship

Longitudinal study

Repeated observations of same people over long period of time.

E.g. Researcher studies children from when they're 5 to 18, seeing how attachment style impacts later emotional development.

PROS: High accuracy
CONS: Time consuming, costly, and people may drop out

Population

Also called target population. Entire group of research interest which researcher wants to generalise results onto.

Sample

Subset of population selected for research purposes

Sampling techniques

Random, Stratified, Convenience

Random sampling

Every member of population has equal opportunity
PROS: Reduces bias and fairly representative
CONS: May be time consuming or not very representative.

Stratified sampling

Selecting sample that accurately represents specific subgroups.
PROS: Produces most representative sample
CONS: Can be time-consuming and expensive, demanding on researcher to select appropriate sample

Convenience sampling

Sample comprises individuals who are readily available.
PROS: Time & cost effective
CONS: Unrepresentative sample

Extraneous variables

Variables other than IV that MAY change DV and affect results

Confounding variables

Variables other than IV that have had an affect on DV, but it changes with/at same time as IV so experimenter can't identify if the IV or CV produced the change.

Extraneous vs confounding variables

Extraneous may affect DV, confounding has affected DV

Ethical concepts

BENEFICENCE: Maximise benefits, minimise risk.
INTEGRITY: Search for knowledge and reporting honestly, allowing scrutiny, and contributing to public understanding
JUSTICE: Fair consideration of competing claims, no unfair burden on one group or access to benefits.
NON-MALEFICENCE: Avoiding causing harm
RESPECT: Considering living things' value, decision making capacity, welfare, customs, and protecting those whose ability to decide has diminished

Ethical guidelines

CONFIDENTIALITY: Privacy and anonymity of information
DEBRIEFING: Participants leave knowing aim, results and conclusions
INFORMED CONSENT: Understand experiment purpose and risks before agreeing
DECEPTION: Only permissible if knowledge will affect participant's actions + therefore results.
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION: No coercion to participate
WITHDRAWAL RIGHTS: Participants can leave with no penalty at any time during or after

Reliability

Extent to which a measure produces consistent results

Validity

Either internal or external. Extent to which a measure accurately measures what it is meant to be measuring. Results represent true findings in similar people in a population.

Internal validity

How well study was conducted.
Extent investigation investigate what it set out to or said it would investigate. Investigation will be free from flaws, and its results will be due to investigation not other factors

External validity

Applicability of results
Extent study's results can be applied to beyond sample that made them.

Generalisation

Decision on how widely applicable the results are.

Cognitive development

Changes in an individual's mental abilities; e.g. reasoning, problem-solving

Stages of cognitive development

Must learn first stage's mental capabilities before moving onto next stage. Stages are Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete Operational and Formal Operational.

Erikson's view of social development

The impact that different social and cultural influences have on our social, emotional and personality development. Key principles are Psychosocial Development and Psychological Crisis.

Stages of Social Development

Trust vs Mistrust
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs Guilt
Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Role Confusion
Intimacy vs Isolation
Generativity vs Stagnation
Integrity vs Despair

Stage 1

Trust vs Mistrust (0-18 months). Adequate care develops trust, inadequate develops mistrust. Balance is required.

Stage 2

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (18 months-3 years). A child learns to be independent, and battles between their autonomy/independence, and they shame and doubt for being too independent.

Stage 3

Initiative vs Guilt (3-5 years). Children no longer just react, but think and act with purpose. Initiative is doing activities with purpose and plan and following curiosities, guilt comes from going too far and crossing boundaries.

Stage 4

Industry vs Inferiority (5-12 years). Children learn to do good work to get approval. A sense of industry, wanting to know how the world works, will develop if not limited by feelings of inferiority. School has big impact.

Stage 5

Identity vs Role Confusion (12-18 years). Teens develop a sense of identity (the view someone has of themselves), and without this they form 'role-confusion', and don't know where they belong.

Stage 6

Intimacy vs Isolation (18-25 years). Intimacy is the ability to share and care for someone without fear of losing self. Failure to develop this leads to isolation and loneliness. INTIMACY & IDENTITY can change over time.

Stage 7

Generativity vs Stagnation (25-65 years). Generativity is person's concerns with lives of younger/future generations. People may feel need to participate in fostering the continuation of life, otherwise stagnation and sameness forms.

Stage 8

Integrity vs Despair (65+ years). Looking back on life, people either feel integrity, that their lives were good, or despair, that their lives were meaningl

Secure attachment

Dependence and exploration balance. Caregiver is 'home base'. Some distress when caregiver leaves (suggests confidence in returning). Upon return infant is happy and seeks contact. Leads to good relationships.

Insecure avoidant attachment

Treats caregiver like stranger. Rarely cries when leaving, ignores upon return. Can be result of neglect or abuse. Leads to avoiding emotional connection + distance.

Insecure resistant attachment

Anxious even when caregiver is near. Cries when separated, upon return cries to be picked up, then squirms to be free, unsure of what they want. Can be result of not very responsive caregiver (infant feels caregiver won't give them what they need). Leads to mistrustful adulthood, difficulty trusting people despite being close.

Disorganised attachment

Inconsistent or odd behaviour during separation and reunion with caregiver. E.g. Upon return, infant approaches slowly backwards, or without making eye contact, or may impulsively begin to run to caregiver before pulling back. Usually caused by fear of caregiver but need to be comforted nonetheless. Leads to difficulties opening up + finding support and relationships as adult.

Experience-dependent plasticity

Brain change that modifies existing neural structures. Dependent on experience, with no sensitive period, and is evident in everyday life. Allows brain to compensate/recover from injury, also can be due to drugs.

Experience-dependent plasticity example

Cortical space in the somatosensory cortex devoted to different body parts varies in size depending on the amount someone uses that body part. Size change is due to synapse growth and greater synaptic connection density.

Frontal lobe

The largest lobe voluntary muscle movements and involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control. Contains prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, primary motor cortex and Broca's area (LEFT SIDE ONLY).

Prefrontal cortex

Association area behind forehead doing sophisticated mental abilities such as: planning, problem solving, decisions, symbolic thinking, attention, expression of emotions, and self awareness.

Primary motor cortex

Strip of neural tissue with control of skeletal muscles. Left PMC controls right side of body and vice versa. Amount of cortical space devoted to a body part corresponds to the complexity or 'fineness' of movement in that part.

Broca's area

In left frontal lobe only. Coordinates with body parts involved in speech to produce articulate, clear and fluent speech.

Mental process of voluntary behaviour

Prefrontal cortex plans motor sequence ---> premotor cortex prepares appropriate movement sequence ---> Primary Motor Cortex executes the actions

Wernicke's area

LEFT ONLY. Speech comprehension. While the PAC in left hemi processes auditory sensation, you can't understand it without the Wernicke's area. Connects with Broca's area. Also involved in production of coherent and meaningful speech.

Parietal lobe

Behind Frontal lobe, back half but not rearmost. Receives and processes bodily info: touch + temp, muscle movement + body position. Contains primary somatosensory cortex.
Has association areas for spatial reasoning and attention, plus taste perception (insula cortex)

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Cortex strip that receives and processes sensory info from the skin and body parts (inc. tongue). Left receives right and vice versa. Cortical space for each body part corresponds with sensitivity and usage of a body part.

fMRI

(Functional magnetic resonance imaging) Functional neuroimaging technique that measures changes in oxygen levels in areas of brain.

How fMRI works

Magnetic fields and radio waves detect oxygen levels in brain. Blood is more oxygenated in parts of brain being used. Produces a rapid succession of detailed 2D or 3D images.

How can fMRI be used to examine brain structure in development and research

• Dynamic fMRI can be used to examine social development.

• Areas used for cognitive tasks can be observed

• Areas used when experiencing different emotions can be observed.