Epistemology - What is knowledge?

Aquaintance Knowledge

Knowing of / familiarity

Example of Aquaintance Knowledge

I know Oxford

Ability Knowledge

Knowing how / practical

Example of Ability Knowledge

I know how to ride a bike

Propositional Knowledge

Knowing that / factual

Example of Propositional Knowledge

I know that elephants are heavier than mice

Condition

Something that has to happen for something to be the case

Necessary Condition

A condition that must be fulfilled in order for something else to be the case.

Example of Necessary Condition

Electricity is necessary for a computer to turn on

Sufficient Condition

A condition that is enough for something to be the case.

Example of Sufficient Condition

Being able to speak four languages is sufficient to call yourself multilingual

Jointly sufficient

Two or more conditions that are individually necessary but together become sufficient.

What is a Definition?

A short and conscise explanation of a term or phrase.

What are the two purposes or reasons of defining something?

Practical purposes and theoretical purposes.

What do practical purposes of defining something mean?

Doing something or using something.

What are practical purposes for wanting to define knowledge?

Identifying our own knowledge, the knowledge of others, or helping us to gain new knowledge.

What do theoretical purposes of defining something mean?

It is about ideas and concepts involved rather than doing anything.

What is an example of a theoretical purpose for wanting to define knowledge?

To understand where the concept of knowledge should be placed on a conceptual map.

What did Locke call a real definition?

A necessary truth that reveals the nature of the thing defined.

What are artificial definitions?

Definitions that humans have created.

What are examples of artificial definitions?

Weeds and rich.

What are natural definitions?

Definitions that reflect genuine differences in the nature of things.

What are examples of natural definitions?

Water and gold

What does Zagzebski say about the definition of knowledge?

Knowledge might be a kind of thing where a 'real' definition isn't possible.

Necessary Truth

Something that has to be true.

Contingent Truth

Something that is true based on circumstances.

What does Zagzebski never accept?

Adhoc, Circular, Obscure, Negative

What does ad hoc mean?

Being randomly decided or to meet one specific case.

What is the JTB definition of knowledge?

Justified True Belief

Who created the JTB definition of knowledge?

Plato

What is another name for the JTB definition of knowledge?

Tripartite definition

True

Something is true when the proposition corresponds to the way the world is

Believe

To hold something to be true

Justification

Reason or evidence to support the proposition

Solipsism

The philosophical position that all that can be known to exist is my own mind and its contents

Arguments against justification being necessary

True beliefs can be held on irrational grounds or just be lucky guesses, different people have different ideas of justification

What is an example of true beliefs being held on irrational grounds?

Prejudice

What is an example of true beliefs being lucky guesses?

Astrology

What is the correspondence definition of truth?

A claim is true when it corresponds to the fact.

What does fact mean?

The way the world is

What is the coherence theory of truth?

A belief is true if it is one of the web of beliefs held by a society to be true.

Why is truth an external criteria?

We cannot always be sure of what we can know about the world around us. The correspondence definition of truth relies on us being able to establish the facts of the external world.

What do incompatibilists (Plato) claim about knowledge and belief?

They are incompatible and entirely different ways of viewing the world. Knowledge is infallible and belief is fallible.

Why do some people equate knowledge with successful action?

Someone who hesitantly writes the correct answer in an exam may not believe that they know the correct answer but do, through their learning, not luck.

What are responses to people equating knowledge with successful action?

The person doesn't know the answer or the person does know the answer and has an unconscious belief.

What does Williamson say about belief being necessary for knowledge?

Knowledge is not a type of belief. Knowledge is factive, belief is not factive. Every attempt to add conditions to belief to turn it into knowledge has failed.

Why does Williamson claim that knowledge is unanalysable?

There are different kinds of knowing (perceiving, remembering...)

How does Williamson say that we should understand belief?

In terms of knowledge, to believe that p is to treat p as if you know that p.

What is Gettier's first counterexample of JTB?

Smith and Jones are both going for a job interview. Smith has strong evidence that d) Jones is the man who will get the job, and Jones has ten coins in his pocket, from this e) The man who will get the Job has ten coins in his pocket is true. Smith gets the job but also happens to have ten coins in his pocket

What is Gettier's second counterexample of JTB?

Smith has strong justification that a) Jones owns a Ford. Smith has no evidence of Mr Brown's location. c) Jones owns a Ford or Brown is in Barcelona. Jones no longer owns a Ford and Brown was in Barcelona

Why would we not say in Gettier's counterexamples that Smith has knowledge of his claims?

They involve luck or double luck which isn't involved in knowledge

What are the alternative definitions of knowledge to JTB?

Infallibilism, No false lemmas, Reliabilism, and Epistemic Virtue

What does Infallibilism attempt to do to JTB?

Strengthen a condition

What does No false lemmas attempt to do to JTB?

Add a condition

What do Reliabilism and Epistemic Virtue attempt to do to JTB?

Replace a condition

What is the infallibilism definition of knowledge?

No one can know what is false. Therefore, if I know p, then I can't be mistaken about p. Therefore, for justification to secure knowledge, it must guarentee truth. Some infallibilists exclude belief from knowledge.

Why do some infallibilists exclude belief from knowledge?

They argue belief is quite different. Belief occurs when doubt is possible, knowledge occurs when doubt is not possible.

What are problems with infallibilism?

There is very little that is classed as knowledge, it goes against our intuition, we couldn't gain knowledge from teachers.

What is the no false lemmas definiton of knowledge?

Beliefs can not be used to demonstrate other beliefs unless they too count as knowledge, you can't infer that p from anything false + JTB

What does the no false lemmas definition of knowledge attempt to show?

That if you remove the possibility of incorrect assumptions then Gettier style examples can be discounted.

What are problems with the no false lemmas definition of knowledge?

There are some non-Gettier style cases that don't involve inference (Barney in Barn County), it isn't always easy to know whether an assumption is false and therefore whether to discount it.

What is the Barney in Barn County counterexample to JTB?

Barney is oblivious that he is surrounded by fake barns and looks up to see the only real barn around him and believes it's a real barn, he is lucky that it is the real barn and not a fake one.

What is the reliabilism definition of knowledge?

RTB, replaces justification with a reliable method of generating the belief.

What is a reliable method?

A reliable cognitive process - one that produces a high percentage of true beliefs

What are examples of reliable methods?

Perception, method, testimony

What are advantages of reliabilism?

Young children and animals can have knowledge

What are problems of reliabilism?

Justification covers internal reasoning whereas reliable methods may not, some philosophers argue that Realibilism makes an error in thinking that justification and reliable processes are equivalent.

What is the difference between reasons and causes?

Reaons involve thought processes, causes don't

What are examples of thought processes?

Desires and fears

What does virtue mean?

Skilled

What is Virtue Epistemology?

If we focus on the person instead of the reliable method or justification we will get closer to knowledge. Looking at the knower and how they know dispositionally and habitually is more important than looking at a particular circumstance or method. VTB

What does dispositionally mean?

How you tend to be

What does habitually mean?

Repeatedly

What is intellectual virtue?

An intellectual skill, ability or trait that contributes to getting to truth.

What does Sosa develop Virtue Epistemology into?

AAA

What does AAA stand for?

Accuracy, Adroitness, Aptness

What does adroitness mean?

Skillful

What does aptness mean?

Accurate because it was adroit

What does accuracy mean in terms of AAA?

Is the belief true?

What does adroitness mean in terms of AAA?

Is the way that the person formed the belief an exercise of their intellectual virtues?

What does aptness mean in terms of AAA?

Is the belief true because the person used their intellectual virtues in forming it?

What does Zagzebski say about JTB?

JTB based accounts will always leave a gap between justification and truth, only infallibilism says that justification must guarentee truth. We can always generate Gettier style cases that rely on double luck with JTB based accounts.

How does Zagzebski claim that we can avoid Gettier style cases?

Linking the justification to the truth. Only when true beliefs are held because of the justification should we claim knowledge (virtue epistemology).

What are problems with virtue epistemology?

Disagreement on intellectual virtues, how do you know what is accurate?