AP Psych 2024-25

Psychology

study of behavior and mental processes

Experimental Method

manipulating a variable in research

Non-Experimental method

non-manipulative research

Qualitative data

In-depth data, asks for explanation

Quantitative data

surface level information; likert scale (1-5)

operational definition

statement that specifies the procedures used to define research variables, serves as common ground

Sampling Bias

sample that’s not representative of the population.

confounding variables

non independent variables that may affect the dependent variable in an experiment, leading to erroneous conclusions.

consent/assent

permission for an experiment (adult/minor)

confidentiality

preserving identity of subject in experiment

debriefing

occurs after experiment, fully explain to participants what the purpose of experiment was

deception

misleading participants in a research study about the purpose/details of the study.

protection from harm

ethical guideline protecting participant from undue harm caused by the experiment

Descriptive statistics

Summarizes and organizes data to highlight its main features.

Inferential statistics

draws conclusions about a population from sample data.

mean

average

median

numbered lowest-highest, number in the middle of the set

mode

most common score from a set

range

difference between lowest and highest score

percentile rank

scale of 1-100 where a score places, lower percentile = higher score

Positive skew

A distribution where most values are concentrated on the left, with a long tail extending to the right.

negative skew

A distribution where most values are concentrated on the right, with a long tail extending to the left.

representative sample

1-2 people from a population to represent in a study

statistical significance

how applicable the results of a study are (generalizability)

meta-analysis

combines result from multiple studies

peer review

double checking accuracy of information by peers

standard deviation

variation among scores in a set of values (scale -1 - +1)

Psychodynamic perspective

Behavior is a product of unconscious drives and conflicts, and unresolved issues from childhood.

Cognitive perspective

Behavior is a result of how we process, store and use information to reason and solve problems

Behavioral perspective

Behavior is viewed as a result of learning through associations. Rewards and punishments dictate our behavior

Humanistic perspective

Behavior is a reflection of internal growth and the desire to reach our fullest potential. Nothing determines our behavior but our own free will

Biological perspective

How does the brain and nervous system play a role in our behavior

Neurobiological perspective

Behavior is a result of biological responses

Behavior genetics

Behavior is a result of our “pre-programming” and genetic make up (genetic influence of mental/physical health ex: schizophrenia)

Socio-cultural perspective

Behavior is a result of social, racial, ethnic and religious influences. Behavior and thinking vary with the situation and culture.

Evolutionary perspective

Behavior is a result of favorable traits that promote perpetuation of genes

Nature vs Nurture

debate of what influences and shapes our behavior/mental processes today

Heredity

“nature” argument, what is genetically passed down? shown via adoption/twin studies

Environmental factors

“nurture” argument, what is developed over time through experience? shown via sibling/adoption studies

Natural selection

“survival of the fittest” inspired eugenics movement

Central nervous system

Uses brain and spinal cord to process information and coordinate activity

Peripheral nervous system

Connects the CNS to the limbs and organs, serving as a relay between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body (holds peripheral, autonomic, somatic, sympathetic, parasympathetic nervous systems)

autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary body functions (heart rate, digestion)

somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory information to the CNS

sympathetic nervous system

Prepares the body for 'fight or flight' response during stress.

parasympathetic nervous system

Conserves energy and restores the body to a state of calm

Nervous vs Endocrine system

Neurotransmitters + Electrical impulses vs Hormones + Bloodstream

Neuron

sends messages through body of movement and senses

Sensory neuron

sensitive to stimulation (light, sound, touch…) carries message to CNS (ex:touching a flame)

Interneurons

connects neurons to one another, carries messages within CNS (ex: processing pain of touching flame)

Motor neurons

transmits impulse to muscles, carrying messages from CNS to body 9ex: yanking hand back from a burning flame)

reflex arc

the entire process (sensory-inter-motor neuron) of messaging throughout CNS

Glial cells

support neural network producing myelin (helps axon generate)

Neural transmission

electrical impulses sent within each neuron

Polarized neuron

“resting potential state” of a neuron, inside is mostly negative and outside is mostly positively charged

Depolarized Neuron

“Action potential” of a neuron, electrical charge down axon, negative ions move out

Threshold (neuron)

neuron must reach a certain energy level to fire

Excitory signal

a signal that increases the likelihood of a neuron firing, making it more likely that the message will be transmitted (glutamate!)

Inhibitory signal

a signal that decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing, making it less likely that the message will be transmitted (GABA/Glyceine)

reuptake inhibitor

prevents absorption of neurotransmitter (ex: anti depressants block serotonin from being absorbed so your body has more of it)

Refractory period

after depolarized, neuron must reset

synaptic gap

space between axon of a neuron and receiving neuron

Neurotransmitter

triggers chemical release when action potential reaches synaptic gap

Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter; body's stress response, regulating arousal, attention, and mood, influencing fight-or-flight response. Abnormal levels have been linked to conditions such as anxiety and depression.

Glutamate

Excitory neurotransmitter, cognition, learning, memory, synaptic plasticity

Acetylcholine

transmitter influencing both CNS and PNS; excitory, muscle contraction, attention, arousal, memory

dopamine

reward, motivation, pleasure neurotransmitter; regulates mood, attention, and motor control; abnormal levels linked to depression/schizophrenia

serotonin

neurotransmitter; regulates mood, apetite, sleep, memory. low levels linked to anxiety and depression

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter; CNS, regulates muscle tone and anxiety, calms brain activity

Adrenaline

neurotransmitter/hormone released by adrenal glands, excitory (fight or flight) increased heart rate, blood pressure, energy

Melatonin

Hormone; sleep/wake cycle

oxytocin

“love” hormone, bonding, care

Endorphins

acts as neurotransmitter in pain relief, natural response to stress/discomfort “feel good” hormone

leptin

hormone; low level = hunger

ghrelin

hormone; high level = hunger

hallucinogens

class of drug, affects audio/visual perception

Depressants

class of drug, slows brain activity and bodily function

stimulants

class of drug amplifying brain activity and bodily function

caffeine

a stimulant that increases alertness and energy

cocaine

a stimulant that increases energy, alertness, and euphoria, often leading to addiction.

nicotine

a stimulant found in tobacco that enhances alertness and can lead to dependence.

alcohol

a depressant that affects the central nervous system, leading to relaxation, impaired judgment, and decreased coordination.

marijuana

a psychoactive drug /hallucinogen that can produce relaxation, altered perception, and increased appetite, often used for both recreational and medicinal purposes.

heroin

a highly addictive opioid that produces intense euphoria, pain relief, and can lead to severe physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms.

Brainstem

structure of the brain that regulates vital functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure, and connects the brain to the spinal cord. (includes the thalamus, reticular formation, and medulla)

Frontal lobe

the lobe of the brain associated with reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and emotional regulation, located at the front of the cerebral cortex.

brocas area

a region in the left frontal lobe responsible for language production and speech.

wernickes area

a region in the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and understanding.

motor cortex

a region in the frontal lobe responsible for controlling voluntary movements of the body's muscles.

Parietal lobe

the lobe of the brain responsible for processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain, located behind the frontal lobe.

sensory cortex

a region in the parietal lobe that processes sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, and pain.

occipital lobe

the lobe of the brain responsible for processing visual information, located at the back of the brain.

association areas

regions of the parietal lobe involved in higher cognitive functions such as thinking and problem-solving.

somasensatory cortex

a part of the sensory cortex that specifically processes tactile information from the body.

visual cortex

the area within the occipital lobe that processes visual information from the eyes.

auditory cortex

the region in the temporal lobe that processes auditory information from the ears.

temporal lobe

the lobe of the brain responsible for processing auditory information and is involved in memory and emotion, located beneath the lateral fissure.

corpus callosum

layer of brain connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allows communication between them.

hippocampus

a part of the brain involved in the formation of new memories and spatial navigation, located in the medial temporal lobe.

amygdala

a part of the brain involved in emotional processing, particularly fear and pleasure responses, located near the hippocampus.