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memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure of appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the worlds; tends to yield the best retention
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories - of facts and event - for storage
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best and last items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
repression
in psychoanalytic theory; the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
deja vu
the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
early selection model
proposes that our selective filter selects information to process based on basic features (such as color, pitch, direction, etc). Perception of the stimulus isn’t required prior to selecting its relevance
late selection model
proposes that information is selected after processing for meaning. Implies that internal decisions on relevance must be made before
central executive
one part from baddeley’s 3 systems of working memory; controls outr attention and coordinates working memory for a specific task
phonological loop
one part of baddeley’s 3 systems of working memory; stores and utilizes speech based information (spoken and written)
visuospatial sketchpad
one part of baddeley’s 3 systems of working memory; responsible for manipulating visual images and spatial information
interleaving
a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics
encoding failure
aka pseudo-forgetting, information enters short term memory but is never encoded in long term memory
retrieval failure
information enters long term memory, but you can’t access it
storage decay
the fading of memories over time
reality monitoring
deciding if a memory is based on an external source (really happened) or an internal source (imagined it, dreamed it, thought about it, etc)
destination memory
our ability to remember who we told what
constructive memory
developed by Elizabeth Loftus, the idea that memories aren’t stored as complete copies and aren’t retrieved as such
maintenance rehearsal
keeping information in short term memory
elaborative rehearsal
helps encode information for storage in long term memory
conceptual hierarchy
complex information is broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into catergories and subcatergories
clustering
organizing information into related groups
schema
set of expectations based on knowledge from previous experiences
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