PS101 EXAM PREP

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.

Mental processes

Activities of our brain when thinking.

Behavior

Observable activities of an organism.

Level of Analysis

The different levels at which mental processes and behaviors can be studied, including the brain, the person, and the group.

Brain

The structure and function of the brain.

Stimulation of the amygdala

The effect of stimulating the amygdala on aggression.

Personality factors

How certain personality factors influence aggression.

Exposure to violence in the media

The effect of exposure to violence in the media on aggression.

Philosophy

The roots of psychology, with philosophers like Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates questioning the mind, behavior, and God.

Scientific methods

The development of scientific methods in psychology.

Physiology

The roots of psychology in physiology, with Descartes contemplating mind-body dualism and Locke arguing for learning through experience.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and their psychological effects.

Wilhelm Wundt

The founder of the first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, who studied consciousness.

G

Established the first psychology lab in North America, launched America's first psychology journal, and played a major role in establishing the American Psychological Association (APA).

James Mark Baldwin

Established the first psychology lab in Canada and was influenced by Wundt's ideas.

Structuralism

Led by Edward Titchener, it sought to understand the basic elements of consciousness through introspection.

Functionalism

Led by William James, it sought to understand the purpose or function of consciousness and influenced other schools of thought like behaviorism and applied psychology.

Gestalt psychologists

Argued that consciousness cannot be broken down into elements and emphasized perceiving things as whole perceptual units.

Perspectives on Behavior

Different vantage points for analyzing behavior and its causes, including psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanistic psychology, cognitive psychology, and psychobiology/neuroscience.

Psychoanalysis

Founded by Sigmund Freud, it focused on the unconscious and early childhood experiences.

Behaviorism

Founded by John B. Watson, it emphasized psychology's focus on observable behavior and showed that phobias can be learned.

Humanistic Psychology

Emphasized the unique qualities of humans, freedom, and personal growth, and was led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge, which became the dominant perspective in psychology.

Psychobiology/Neuroscience

Explained behavior in terms of physiological processes, with researchers like Karl Lashley, Donald Hebb, Wilder Penfield, and Roger Sperry making significant contributions.

Science

The basic assumption that events are governed by some lawful order that can be observed, measured, and tested.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to research that helps maintain accuracy and precision.

Testable Hypothesis

A tentative prediction about the relationship between variables.

Variable

Any measurable condition that is controlled or observed in a study.

Observations

The first step in conducting research, which involves making observations and reviewing literature.

Participants

Individuals chosen for a study, with a random sample being representative of the population.

Sample Bias

Choosing a sample that does not represent the population.

Research Methods

Different methods used to collect data, including case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys/questionnaires.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of a single participant using various data collection techniques.

Survey and Questionnaire

Participants are asked a series of questions about their behavior.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording participants' natural behavior without influencing them.

Experimental Research

Research that manipulates variables to demonstrate cause and effect.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the manipulation in an experiment.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the manipulation and serves as a comparison in an experiment.

Correlational Research

Research that examines the relationship between variables.

Theory

A set of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.

Statistics

The use of statistical analysis to make sense of research results.

Correlation Coefficient

Indicates the relationship between variables, with positive, negative, or zero correlations.

Brain

Weighs 3 pounds, uses 20% of oxygen, made up of 100+ billion neurons, and can be studied through techniques like CT scans, MRI, fMRI, PET scans, EEG, ERP, and DTI.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Allows us to see what part of the brain is active by tracing where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain's surface. Useful for studying seizures and sleep.

Event Related Potential (ERP)

When the change in electrical activity is time locked to the presentation of a stimulus. Requires many trials averaged over many EEG signals to remove the fluctuations in EEG signals.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

A structural neuroimaging technique that allows researchers to measure white matter pathways in the brain. These pathways are often damaged in individuals who suffer concussions.

Glial Cells

Found throughout the nervous system. Provides support for neurons. Recent evidence that they also modulate neural activity.

Neurons

Directly involved in communication. Receive, integrate, and transmit information to and from other neurons.

Astrocytes

Largest glia, star-shaped, many functions.

Oligodendrocytes

Myelinate axons in CNS.

Microglia

Response to injury or disease.

Schwann Cells

Myelinate axons in PNS.

Dendrites

Branching extensions that receive inputs from other neurons.

Axon

Single process that extends from the cell and represents the outburst side of the neuron.

Cell Body

Contains the metabolic machinery that maintains the neurons.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and Spinal cord. The CNS makes decisions for the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All neural pathways outside of the brain and spinal cord. Connects CNS with muscles, glands, and sensory receptors.

Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic NS arouses (fight or flight). Parasympathetic NS calms (rest and digest).

Medulla

Automatic survival functions. Breathing, blood circulation, reflexes.

Pons

Sleep and wakefulness. Coordinates automatic and unconscious movements. Swallowing, posture, facial expressions, eye movements.

Cerebellum

Balance, coordination, and timing of movements. Attention and emotion.

Substantia Nigra

The nucleus from which dopamine neurons send their axons to the striatum (Forebrain). Involved in movement control. Damaged in Parkinson's.

Thalamus

The sensory switchboard. All sensory messages (except smell) are routed through the thalamus on the way to the cortex.

Hypothalamus

Regulates body temperature. Ensures adequate food and water intake (homeostasis). Involved in sex drive. Directs the endocrine system via messages sent to the pituitary gland.

Limbic System

An integrated network involved in emotion and memory. Made of 4 structures:Amygdala, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Thalamus.

Amygdala

Helps process emotions, especially fear and aggression. Mediates memory formation for emotional events.

Hippocampus

Processes continuous, episodic memories. Important in the formation of new memories.

Basal Ganglia

Functions in both voluntary movement and responses to rewarding stimuli.

Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of the brain, 3mm thick. Made up of mostly cell bodies, which are grey in color, so cerebral cortex often called the grey matter.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information. Contains the primary visual cortex, after which visual information is routed along two different pathways.

Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information. Contains the primary auditory cortex. Contains Wernicke's area. Important in speech comprehension.

Frontal Lobe

Speech and skeletal motor functions. Contains the primary motor cortex. Contains Broca's area. Contains the prefrontal cortex. Important in executive functions like planning, decision making, and controlling attention.

Primary Motor Cortex

Controls movement on the opposite side of the body of over 600 voluntary muscles.

Somatosensory Cortex

Receives sensory information from the opposite side of the body. Laid out in a pattern represented by a sensory homunculus.

Resting Potential

If an axon is not sending or receiving any signals, then it is negatively charged at about -70mV.

Action Potential

A sudden and brief increase in the permeability of the cell's membrane to Na+. Causes the cell's electric charge to swing dramatically to the positive side.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse between neurons.

Reuptake

Occurs when the terminal buttons quickly remove the neurotransmitters from the synapse

Implicit memory

Knowledge that we are not typically aware of, such as skills, classical conditioning, and past experiences.

Controlled processing

Processing that requires consciousness and effort.

Automatic processing

Processing that requires no consciousness, such as routine and well-learned tasks.

Sleep

A natural state of rest for the body and mind.

Adaptive theory of sleep

The theory that organisms sleep for self-preservation and to stay safe from predators.

Restorative theory of sleep

The theory that sleep restores our brains and bodies.

Circadian rhythm

A daily, rhythmic biological cycle that influences our sleep-wake patterns.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

The part of the hypothalamus that controls the circadian rhythm.

Stages of sleep

The different phases of sleep that we cycle through roughly every 90 minutes.

Beta waves

Brain waves that occur when we are awake and alert.

Alpha waves

Brain waves that occur when we are relaxed and drowsy.

Stage 1 sleep

The lightest stage of sleep, characterized by theta waves and body jerks.

Stage 2 sleep

Deeper sleep with sleep spindles and harder to awaken.

Stage 3 sleep

Deeper sleep with regular appearance of delta waves.

Stage 4 sleep

The deepest stage of sleep, dominated by delta waves.

REM sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, characterized by frequent dreaming and increased brain activity.

REM sleep paralysis

A state during REM sleep where voluntary muscles are difficult to contract.

Manifest content

The surface story of a dream.

Latent content

The disguised psychological meaning of a dream.