Phil Midterm

Reasoning

The process of forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences from premises or evidence.

Impartiality

The principle of being unbiased and treating all viewpoints fairly.

Deceptive Argument

An argument that misleads or manipulates by using fallacies, ambiguity, or misinformation.

Prescriptive Argument

An argument that makes a claim about how things ought to be rather than how they are.

Validity

A property of deductive arguments where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Soundness

A property of an argument that is both valid and has all true premises.

Moral Agent

An individual capable of making ethical decisions and being held responsible for their actions.

Moral Patient

An entity (human or animal) that is the subject of moral concern but may not have moral agency.

Cultural Relativism

The idea that moral values are culturally dependent and that no universal moral truths exist.

Ethical Egoism

The theory that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest.

Psychological Egoism

The descriptive claim that all human actions are motivated by self-interest.

Altruism

Acting for the benefit of others, sometimes at a cost to oneself.

False Dilemma

A logical fallacy where only two options are presented when more exist.

Moral Dilemma

A situation where an individual faces conflicting moral obligations.

Euthyphro Dilemma

A challenge to divine command theory: 'Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?'

Socrates

Greek philosopher known for the Socratic method and his focus on ethics and self-examination.

Plato

Student of Socrates; wrote The Republic and introduced the Theory of Forms.

Aristotle

Student of Plato; developed virtue ethics and emphasized empirical observation.

Homeric Tradition

The moral and heroic values found in The Iliad and The Odyssey.

Sophists

Ancient Greek teachers who emphasized rhetoric over truth-seeking.

David Hume

Scottish empiricist who challenged rationalism, introduced the is-ought problem, and argued against causality.

Thomas Aquinas

Medieval philosopher who combined Aristotelian ethics with Christian theology, developing Natural Law Theory.

Hobbes

Developed social contract theory, arguing that humans need a strong authority to prevent chaos.

Kant

Developed deontological ethics, focusing on duty and moral laws.

Hypothetical Imperatives

Conditional moral commands (e.g., 'If you want to pass, study hard').

Categorical Imperatives

Unconditional moral principles that apply to all rational beings.

Formula of Universal Law

Act only according to a maxim that you can will to become a universal law.

Formula of Humanity

Treat people as ends in themselves, never merely as means.

Formula of Autonomy

Act according to laws that a rational being would prescribe for themselves.

Kant on Lying

Lying is always wrong because it violates the categorical imperative.

Kant on Persons

Every rational being has inherent dignity and must be treated as an end.

Kant on Punishment

Just punishment is justified by retributivism, not deterrence.

Virtue Ethics

A moral theory focusing on character and virtues rather than specific actions (Aristotle).

Theory of Right Action

Ethical theories that focus on defining morally correct actions.

Virtue-Based Theories

Ethical theories that prioritize character over rules or consequences.

Classical Virtue Theories

Rooted in Aristotle’s four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice.

Utilitarianism

The ethical theory that the right action maximizes overall happiness (Bentham, Mill).

Deontology

Ethics based on duty and rules, rather than consequences (Kant).

Natural Law Theory

The belief that moral laws are derived from human nature and reason (Aquinas).

Theorem of Logic

A logical principle or truth that follows from a set of axioms.

Epistemology

The study of knowledge, belief, and justification.

Metaphysics

The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of reality and existence.

Analytic a priori

Statements that are true by definition and can be known independently of experience (e.g., 'All bachelors are unmarried').

Synthetic a posteriori

Statements that require experience to verify (e.g., 'Water boils at 100°C').

Analytical Philosophy

A school of thought that emphasizes logical analysis of language and concepts.

The Paradox of Education

The idea that education both liberates and conditions individuals.

Moral Transformation

The process by which individuals develop moral character.

The Grounding Problem

The question of what ultimately justifies moral principles.

State of Nature

The hypothetical condition of humans before social institutions (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau).

First Cause

The argument that everything has a cause, leading to the necessity of an uncaused first cause (Aquinas).

Thesis and Non-Theists

The debate between those who believe in God and those who do not.

Neoplatonism

A philosophical movement that expanded on Plato’s ideas, emphasizing metaphysical unity.

Monism

The view that reality is fundamentally one substance.

Pluralism

The belief in multiple fundamental substances or perspectives.

Philosophy of Science

Examines scientific methods, knowledge, and progress.

Philosophy of Language

Studies the nature, structure, and meaning of language.

Philosophy of Logic

Investigates principles of valid inference and reasoning.

Philosophy of Math

Explores the nature of mathematical truths.

Philosophy of Mind

Analyzes consciousness, identity, and mental states.

Philosophy of Reason

Examines the nature and limits of human reason.

Modern World & Modernity

The shift in philosophy, science, and society since the Enlightenment.

Empiricism

The theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience (Locke, Hume).

Rationalism

The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge (Descartes, Spinoza).

Naturalism

The idea that everything can be explained by natural causes.

Hobbesian Social Contract Theory

The belief that individuals consent to authority in exchange for security.