Phil Midterm

Philosophy Midterm Study Guide

1. Reasoning and Argumentation

• Reasoning – The process of forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences from premises or evidence.

• Impartiality – The principle of being unbiased and treating all viewpoints fairly.

• Deceptive Argument – An argument that misleads or manipulates by using fallacies, ambiguity, or misinformation.

• Prescriptive Argument – An argument that makes a claim about how things ought to be rather than how they are.

• Validity – A property of deductive arguments where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

• Soundness – A property of an argument that is both valid and has all true premises.

2. Ethics and Moral Philosophy

• Moral Agent – An individual capable of making ethical decisions and being held responsible for their actions.

• Moral Patient – An entity (human or animal) that is the subject of moral concern but may not have moral agency.

• Cultural Relativism – The idea that moral values are culturally dependent and that no universal moral truths exist.

• Ethical Egoism – The theory that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest.

• Psychological Egoism – The descriptive claim that all human actions are motivated by self-interest.

• Altruism – Acting for the benefit of others, sometimes at a cost to oneself.

• False Dilemma – A logical fallacy where only two options are presented when more exist.

• Moral Dilemma – A situation where an individual faces conflicting moral obligations.

• Euthyphro Dilemma – A challenge to divine command theory: "Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?"

3. Major Philosophers and Schools of Thought

• Socrates – Greek philosopher known for the Socratic method and his focus on ethics and self-examination.

• Plato – Student of Socrates; wrote The Republic and introduced the Theory of Forms.

• Aristotle – Student of Plato; developed virtue ethics and emphasized empirical observation.

• Homeric Tradition – The moral and heroic values found in The Iliad and The Odyssey.

• Sophists – Ancient Greek teachers who emphasized rhetoric over truth-seeking.

• David Hume – Scottish empiricist who challenged rationalism, introduced the is-ought problem, and argued against causality.

• Thomas Aquinas – Medieval philosopher who combined Aristotelian ethics with Christian theology, developing Natural Law Theory.

• Hobbes – Developed social contract theory, arguing that humans need a strong authority to prevent chaos.

• Kant – Developed deontological ethics, focusing on duty and moral laws.

4. Kantian Ethics

• Hypothetical Imperatives – Conditional moral commands (e.g., "If you want to pass, study hard").

• Categorical Imperatives – Unconditional moral principles that apply to all rational beings.

• Formula of Universal Law – Act only according to a maxim that you can will to become a universal law.

• Formula of Humanity – Treat people as ends in themselves, never merely as means.

• Formula of Autonomy – Act according to laws that a rational being would prescribe for themselves.

• Kant on Lying – Lying is always wrong because it violates the categorical imperative.

• Kant on Persons – Every rational being has inherent dignity and must be treated as an end.

• Kant on Punishment – Just punishment is justified by retributivism, not deterrence.

5. Ethical Theories

• Virtue Ethics – A moral theory focusing on character and virtues rather than specific actions (Aristotle).

• Theory of Right Action – Ethical theories that focus on defining morally correct actions.

• Virtue-Based Theories – Ethical theories that prioritize character over rules or consequences.

• Classical Virtue Theories – Rooted in Aristotle’s four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice.

• Utilitarianism – The ethical theory that the right action maximizes overall happiness (Bentham, Mill).

• Deontology – Ethics based on duty and rules, rather than consequences (Kant).

• Natural Law Theory – The belief that moral laws are derived from human nature and reason (Aquinas).

6. Logic and Epistemology

• Theorem of Logic – A logical principle or truth that follows from a set of axioms.

• Epistemology – The study of knowledge, belief, and justification.

• Metaphysics – The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of reality and existence.

• Analytic a priori – Statements that are true by definition and can be known independently of experience (e.g., "All bachelors are unmarried").

• Synthetic a posteriori – Statements that require experience to verify (e.g., "Water boils at 100°C").

• Analytical Philosophy – A school of thought that emphasizes logical analysis of language and concepts.

7. The Nature of Morality and Society

• The Paradox of Education – The idea that education both liberates and conditions individuals.

• Moral Transformation – The process by which individuals develop moral character.

• The Grounding Problem – The question of what ultimately justifies moral principles.

• State of Nature – The hypothetical condition of humans before social institutions (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau).

8. Religion and Metaphysical Theories

• First Cause – The argument that everything has a cause, leading to the necessity of an uncaused first cause (Aquinas).

• Thesis and Non-Theists – The debate between those who believe in God and those who do not.

• Neoplatonism – A philosophical movement that expanded on Plato’s ideas, emphasizing metaphysical unity.

• Monism – The view that reality is fundamentally one substance.

• Pluralism – The belief in multiple fundamental substances or perspectives.

9. Philosophy of Science, Logic, and Mind

• Philosophy of Science – Examines scientific methods, knowledge, and progress.

• Philosophy of Language – Studies the nature, structure, and meaning of language.

• Philosophy of Logic – Investigates principles of valid inference and reasoning.

• Philosophy of Math – Explores the nature of mathematical truths.

• Philosophy of Mind – Analyzes consciousness, identity, and mental states.

• Philosophy of Reason – Examines the nature and limits of human reason.

10. Modern Philosophy and Contemporary Thought

• Modern World & Modernity – The shift in philosophy, science, and society since the Enlightenment.

• Empiricism – The theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience (Locke, Hume).

• Rationalism – The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge (Descartes, Spinoza).

• Naturalism – The idea that everything can be explained by natural causes.

• Hobbesian Social Contract Theory – The belief that individuals consent to authority in exchange for security.