Topic 6: Impact of WWII on the homefront

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What was Japan’s motive for expansion?

They wanted to modernize their economy and military, but the Japanese mainland didn’t have the natural resources they needed, especially oil. So, they invaded other lands for natural resources.

What happened in 1932?

Japan completes its occupation of Manchuria. This gives them some natural resources they needed. They continue trying to invade China afterward.

What was the result of Japan’s invasion of Manchuria? When did the consequences fall?

They were condemned for their actions by the League of Nations, so they withdrew from the League completely in 1933. The US was not involved.

What happened in 1937?

Japan attacked China and commits Rape of Nanking. They face international condemnation for this.

What were Japan’s Northern and Southern strategies? When were they carried out?

1930s to 1940s, Japan’s plan to take over resource-rich areas in China. Two simultaneous attacks, one in the north led by army and one in the south led by navy.

What happened to the Northern Army in the Northern and Southern strategies?

They ended up in a confrontation with the Soviet Union and lost the battle, ultimately failing to take the planned area.

What happened to the Southern Navy in the Northern and Southern strategies?

They made an agreement with French Indochina and claimed some territory. Then they kept claiming more of French Indochina.

What was the US’ response to the Southern Navy’s continued expansion? When did they take action?

When Japan made a deal with French Indochina, the US watched with concern. As they keep taking more territory, US freezes (makes impossible to access) all Japanese assets and bank accounts in the US starting July 1941. In August 1941, US additionally imposes an embargo on oil products to Japan.

What was Japan’s reaction to the US’ retaliation?

Japan loses 94% of its oil supply. They try to negotiate with the US but decide to take the resources by force.

What was the economic reason for Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor?

Japan’s crucial resources— mainly oil, but also scrap metal, coal, and iron came from the US. US just imposed embargos on oil, causing 94% loss of oil supply. Japan wants to protect access to these to continue modernizing economy + military.

What was the political reason for Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor?

US was isolationist but shifting towards interventionism w/Cash and Carry, Lend-Lease acts, demonstrating clear support for Allies. Japan is Axis power (against US).

What is the military reason for Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor?

1940 FDR moves US Pacific fleet from Cali to Pearl Harbor. He also passes Naval Expansion Act, promising to x3 fleet size by 1944.

Japan thought attacking Pearl Harbor would hurt US army → they can’t respond violently (with what army? they’re dead?) → force US to negotiate peace and unfreeze Japan’s assets

When did Japan attack Pearl Harbor?

December 7, 1941

How was the attack on Pearl Harbor structured?

1st wave: Dive bombers and fighters targeting hangars

2nd wave: Bombers and torpedoes targeting ships in the harbor, esp. battleships. Those torpedoes were specifically designed by Japan for Pearl Harbor, so they could fight in the waters believed to be too shallow for fighting.

170 aircraft split into 3 groups targeting ships, but these were less successful b/c base was already on high alert from the 1st wave

What was the physical outcome of Pearl Harbor?

USS Oklahoma and USS Arizona were among those bombed, killing 1175 of their crew. Caused over 2400 US casualties total.

Japan destroyed 188 aircraft and hit 18 ships, 8 of which were battleships.

What were the implications at the end of Pearl Harbor (in terms of Japan’s motives)?

The attack was simply an escalation of Japan’s previous attempts to claim more territory for more resources, eg. invading Manchuria and occupying of French Indochina

What do the US do as a result of Pearl Harbor?

Declare war December 8, 1941. Start putting internment camps + forced evacuation into place.

Why did Japanese internment camps get set up?

Pearl Harbor causes suspicion that all Japanese are secretly spies, obtaining US poltiical & military info to plan another attack, they are not “true Americans,” only reason they haven’t been caught sabotaging is b/c they’re waiting for the right time to attack.

How long did Japanese internment camps exist?

4 years, 1942 - 1946.*

*The relocation order was officially revoked in 1945 after the war ended & all camps but Tule Lake closed, it took another year (till 1946) for Tule Lake to be closed & War Relocation Authority was liquidated and disbanded.

What was Executive Order 9066?

Feb 1942- Signed by FDR, allowing military to move citizens even from outside non-military areas. Implemented curfews, but only on the Japanese. Basically authorized forced relocation of Japanese to the internment camps.

What was the War Relocation Authority?

Mar 1942- established to oversee internment of Japanese Americans. Moves them away from West Coast where Pearl Harbor happened.

Could overrule Attorney General in relocating Japanese Americans → can throw Japanese into internment camps w/o due process or proof of crime

What was Public Law 503?

Put weight of law behind EO 9066. Fines + imprisonment for those who disobeyed.

What was Public Proclamation No. 4?

Began forced evacuation of Japanese Americans on the West Coast. 48 hours notice.

How did the US talk about the internment camps?

Laws didn’t specify ethnicity of those to be deported, called it voluntary and temporary even though it was mandatory and semi-permanent (until end of WWII), and claimed it would be for their own safety. It’s for “national security.”

How did Japanese Americans react to the internment notice?

• Affected both citizen and non-citizen Japanese.

• Forced to pack only what they could carry on their backs w/only 48 hours notice, so often sold belongings for cheap, massive financial losses.

• Shock— no indication where they were going. Some separated from families.

• Had constitutional rights violated!!!

How were the Japanese treated in internment camps?

Lived in fear, treated as enemies, constant supervision by soldiers. Often held in barren, harsh areas, expected to build own mattresses, insulation, and infrastructure.

What were the conditions at the internment camps?

Harsh climates very different than mild West Coast weather, barbed-wire fences around facilities, unfurnished and barren barracks

What were the relocation centers in order of population?

Tule Lake (18k) → Poston → Gila River → Heart Mountain → Manzanar → Minidoka → Jerome → Rohwer → Topaz → Granada

What was special about Tule Lake?

It specifically held those whose loyalty to the government was questioned. It was the largest Japanese internment camp.

What were other examples of racism towards the Japanese after Pearl Harbor?

• Japanese facilities like shops were hatefully vandalized.

• Anti-Asian exclusion policies: couldn’t become naturalized citizens, Japanese immigration to US limited

• Alien land Laws: can’t own/lease land

• 120k Japanese incarcerated into prison camps by suspicion, NONE of them actually committed crimes against US

What were the short-term consequences of internment on the Japanese?

• Shops shut down as little as a day after Pearl Harbor

• After Japanese released back to West Coast in 1945, found property and businesses neglected, vandalized, taken over

• $400 million in losses

What were the long-term consequences of internment on the Japanese?

• Struggle to find jobs and loans

• By 1980- 35 years after war- those sent to poorest internment camps still earn 17% less than those in wealthiest camps

• Today, many Japanese sue for their families’ losses

What does Congress do to financially support the Japanese, and when?

1948 (2 years after last internment camp shut down): gives 10 cents for each dollar lost

What were the positive impacts of Japanese internment on Americans?

• Bought things from fleeing Japanese for cheap

• Positive for US: 45% employed Japanese Americans in West Coast were farmers. Their leaving opened up jobs for high school boys.

• White farmers get less competition and more land, so they make $$$

What is MY CLAIM for the 2 most significant impacts of WWII and internment on Japanese Americans?

1. Financial loss + economic hardship b/c had both short and long-term effects on Japanese Americans. Short-term, massive financial losses selling properites in 48h. Long-term, struggle to find jobs and loans, they’re still poor, and sue for losses.

2. Violation of civil liberties + American values b/c War Relocation Authority overrules Attorney General, putting Japanese into internment camps w/o due process or proof of crime. Violates their constitutional 5th Amendment rights + US notions of life, liberty, property pursuit of happiness.

What were the “No-No Boys”?

People who answered “no” to question 27 (will you serve in US armed forces) and question 28 (will you swear allegiance to and defend the US and give up allegiance to Japan or any other gov.) on loyalty questionnaire.

Some were carrying out resistance. Some just thought the questions were ridiculous b/c they hadn’t even sworn allegiance to the Japanese emperor (US citizens)

What happened to the No-No Boys?

Sent to Tule Lake internment camp, where “most suspicious” Japanese Americans were interned. Their answers were seen as direct resistance to the compliance that US government expected.

What was the 442nd Infantry Regiment and when was it formed?

Formed 1943- Military unit comprised entirely of American-born Japanese. Segregated divisions, treated like and fought alongside Black Americans. “Go for Broke.”

What did the 442nd Infantry Regiment accomplish?

Fought well, rescued members of Texas 141st Infantry Regiment via suicide charges- suffered 800 casualties but rescued all 200 people.

Inoyue, one of the soldiers, played a part in making Hawaii a state. He was its 1st Congress representative.

What was the enemies’ reaction to the 442nd Infantry Regiment?

Said they fought heroically and were disciplined + silent.

What was the US’ reaction to the 442nd Infantry Regiment?

5th Army Lieutanant Mark Clark suggested they recruit more Japanese Americans but was denied b/c discrimination meant Japanese were viewed as second-class.

After WWII, all members of the 442nd earned a gold medal for their service.

What was the Civil Liberties Act and when was it passed?

1988- formal apology to all Japanese Americans subjected to internment, signed by Reagan, provided $20k to all affected. Made soldiers in the 442nd feel their efforts were recognized.

What was the case of Korematsu v. US?

• Korematsu was reported, arrested, thrown into federal prison for not leaving California when ordered

• Appealed to Supreme Court Oct. 1944: argued EO9066 violated 5th Amendment of having due process, b/c his loyalty to US was never in question

What was the majority (winning) argument in Korematsu v. US and who wrote it?

Hugo Black- EO9066 justified because it kept the country safe which is more important than personal rights. Argued there was proof Japanese Americans proved dangerous to US (which we now know isn’t true).

What was the main dissenter (opposing) opinion in Korematsu v. US and who wrote it?

Frank Murphy- called it “legalization of racism.” Japanese are citizens of US and entitled to protection of rights + freedom by the Constitution. Internment based on disinformation and prejudice.

When was EO9066 shut down/contradicted and why?

Not formally cancelled until 1976

Public Proclamation No. 21 in 1945 contradicted EO9066 and allowed interned Japanese to return home b/c the “military necessity” for internment was no longer valid. Last internment camp (Tule Lake) closed in 1946.

Were the long-term or short-term effects of internment more impactful?

Long-term. Even after the Japanese returned to their hometowns, they faced the same discriminatory sentiment and struggled to find jobs and get loans; the financial losses and effects of staying in the poorer internment camps affected them long after and their families today continue to sue for losses.

What can be learned from the internment camps’ outcome?

It is important to protect people’s civil rights even in times of crisis.

What are FDR’s Four Freedoms?

1. Freedom of speech and expression

2. Freedom of religion

3. Freedom from want

4. Freedom from fear

I predict that freedom of religion will be easiest to achieve.

What happened to Black Americans during WWII?

Treated as second-class humans. Used war opportunities to protest systemic discrimination both inside and outside of the workplace.

What did Black Americans fight for in the military?

Right to be drafted proportionately

What positions did Black American men take up during wartime?

Fought in military in all-Black divisions— 92nd and 370th. Flew well as Tuskegee Airmen, nicknamed “Red Tails,” making a good name for Black people.

What positions did Black American women take up during wartime?

Auxiliary Care unit (women-only unit serving as chefs or nurses), Women’s Army Corps, some worked as Airforce Pilots

Often given menial labor, eg. being an orderly rather than a medical professional

What discrimination did Black Americans face in the military?

• Treated as second-class citizens, always called “trainees” instead of “officers”

• Segregated housing under all White commanders

• Extreme violence: White civilians could assault Black soldiers w/o punishment, even German and Italian prisoners were treated better

• Black officers forced to comply with rules discriminating against other Black people.

What was the March on Washington Movement?

Plan to march on the capital- created to call out segregation in the military and demand fair treatment. Raised concerns for race relations.

What was the outcome of the March on Washington Movement?

In 1941, FDR signed EO 8802 prohibiting discrimination of Black workers in defense and government.

He also implemented Fair Employment Practices Commission to address workplace discrimination.

What was the Double “V” campaign?

Stood for “double victory,” against enemies on the warfront and enemies (racism) at home. Newspaper marketing campaign.

What was the Freedom Field Mutiny?

1945- an act of civil disobedience. Though it got 162 soldiers arrested, it also prompted re-evaluation or racial policy: the first African American commander, Benjamin O’ Davis, was named.

What was the NAACP?

Organization that planned to use war to pressure + shame government into inclusivity. Their members grew by 400k from 1940 to 1946.

Which four freedoms were achieved for Black Americans?

Freedom from want (partially), treated equally but were segregated. Fair Employment Practices Commission and EO8802 reduced the previously violent treatment of Black soldiers.

Freedom of speech, NAACP was allowed to form, though anything deemed civilly disobedient would get them arrested.

What happened to Native Americans during WWII?

• Recruited as Navajo Code Talkers

• 99% of healthy native men registered for military draft

• Land was used for atomic bomb tests + natural resources

• War improved awareness of Natives’ civil rights

What happened to the Native Americans’ land during WWII?

It was used to test atomic bombs, to hold Japanese internment camps, for use as military bases, and a means to gain natural resources like coal, copper, lead, iron, and zinc.

What were Navajo Code Talkers?

Native Americans employed to cipher and relay messages in the Navajo language, which only had 30 non-native speakers and didn’t have a written form to begin with. They made code words for common military terms.

What was the outcome of Navajo Code Talkers?

Very successful. It led Native Americans to be recognized by the US— they were credited for US success in Iwo Jima.

In 1940, Native Americans were included in citizenship in the Nationality Act.

Which four freedoms were achieved for Native Americans?

Freedom from want (partially), as they gained employment and social mobility but their land was taken by the US.

Freedom of speech, gained social mobility and awareness of their lack of rights. They successfully fought for more rights as proven in 1940 Nationality Act + the credit they received for US Iwo Jima victory.

Freedom of worship (partially), Navajo culture was respected due to its utility. However, we don’t know about other Native American cultures.

What happened to Mexicans and Latino Americans during WWII?

• Found work in the US via Bracero Program

• Women got social mobility, employed for bilingualism

• Fought in US army but were poorly supplied and outmatched by Japanese in 1941

• Discrimination, suspicion, “Zoot Suit” shaming

What was the Bracero Program?

22-year-long program where the US + Mexican government made a deal to ease agricultural labor shortage in US during WWII.

Over 75k Mexicans worked in the US IN EXCHANGE FOR businesses paying higher wages + providing housing and medical care to raise their standard of living higher than it was in Mexico.

What jobs did Mexican and Latino women take up during WWII?

Communications and cryptology as linguists and translators.

Red Cross as nurses.

How did the police treat Mexican Americans?

With suspicion. Many Mexicans arrested for suspicion or robbery, even when they were only playing in the streets. Mexican street gangs blamed for crimes.

What was “Zoot Suit” shaming?

Zoot Suits = Mexican fashion made from wool, seen as unpatriotic because wool was being rationed for the war. This led some US citizens to attack those wearing Zoot Suits with makeshift weapons.

Chief cause of riots found to be racism, not the Zoot Suit wearers.

Which four freedoms were achieved for Mexicans and Latino Americans?

Freedom from want (partially), women were allowed to work but Mexicans didn’t achieve equality (Zoot Suit shaming, discrimination)

literally nothing else :/

What happened to women during WWII?

• Working traditionally male jobs. Nurses, pilots

• 35% women employed

• Gov. provided childcare support, but majority males disapproved

• Short-term success: almost all women employed thru WWII were fired after

What was the effect of WWII on employment of women?

Good effect. 6 mil women enter labor force. Working is now seen as a woman’s patriotic duty.

Women feel more confident, needed, and equal.

What jobs did women work during WWII?

2 mil in clerical jobs like Red Cross, treating soldiers + teaching medical skills

2.5 mil in manufacturing

How did the public react to women working?

Little social support. Children of working mothers = “eight-hour orphans.” Mourned loss of family values, women expected to provide childcare.

Was the effect of WWII on women’s employment short or long-term?

Short-term. Within 1 week of winning WWII (Sep 1945), 100% of female employees were fired and 72% of women looking for a job in the war industry couldn’t find one.

Which of the four freedoms did women achieve during WWII?

Freedom from want (barely), as they could work as desired during the war but were fired shortly after its end, reinstating that “want” strongly.

also nothing else v-v

How did WWII affect marginalized communities overall?

• Gave opportunities for employment

• Could prove loyalty to US, though Black and Latino Americans largely unrecognized

• Raised suspicion of non-American citizens (Japanese + Mexican)

• Continuity: kept regarding marginalized pop. as second-class citizens

What were overall short-term effects of WWII on marginalized populations?

Japanese: put into internment camps, massive financial losses from forced relocation on 48 hours’ notice, constitutional rights violated

Black: worked in segregated troops. Faced violence & other side had no consequence.

Native: worked as Navajo Code Talkers. Credited for US success @ Iwo Jima. Land taken for US atomic bomb tests + internment camps + military base + natural resources

Mexican: employed in agriculture thru Bracero Program. Discrimination in street and Zoot Suit Riots.

Women: employed in traditionally male jobs, some even became pilots

What were overall long-term effects of WWII on marginalized populations?

Japanese: struggled finding loans or work after release from internment → generational poverty, earn 17% less than those in wealthy internment camps in 1980 (35y later), $400 mil in losses, family today still sues.

Black: discrimination awareness— FDR prohibits discrimination of Black workers in gov. or service.

Native: gained awareness of lack of civil rights + successfully pressed for them, proved useful & included in citizenship in 1940 Nationality Act.

Mexican: idk? maybe don’t talk about this?

Women: all benefits from WWII were short-term, b/c 100% of women hired for WWII work were fired as soon as the war ended + 72% struggled finding work in war industry after.