The study of internal mental processes (all the things that go on inside your brain)
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**Metacognition**
When we think about our thinking, active control and awareness of our own thinking
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**Concepts**
“Organization” Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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**Prototype**
“First Think Of” Mental image or the best example of a specific concept or category
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**Convergent Thinking**
“Logic” Type of thinking that focuses on coming up with the single, well-established answer to a problem (limits creativity)
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**Divergent Thinking**
“Imagination” Thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions (creativity)
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**Problem Solving**
The mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems
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**Algorithms**
Set of step-by-step procedures that provides the correct answer to a particular problem
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**Heuristics**
“Rules of Thumb” An educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem
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**Representativeness Heuristic**
Comparing the present situation to the most representative mental prototype
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**Availability Heuristic**
Basing decisions on examples and information that immediately spring to mind
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**Insights**
“The Aha! Moment” A sudden and often new realization of the solution a problem, such as suddenly seeing a cause and effect relationship
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**Wolfgang Kohler**
Studied chips trying to get bananas that were out of reach
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**Mental Set**
Tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas
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**Functional Fixedness**
Tendency to view problems only in their customary manner
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**Confirmation Bias**
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
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**Belief Perseverance**
“Denial” Tendency to hold on to beliefs even when evidence proves those beliefs to be wrong
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**Overconfidence**
Tendency to overestimate our own knowledge, skill, or judgment
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**Hindsight Bias phenomenon**
"I-knew-it-all-along" The tendency people have to view events as more predictable than they really are
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**Framing (Cognitive Bias)**
The process of presenting or posing an issue or question, how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments people make
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**Anchoring Effect (Cognitive Bias)**
Favoring the first information offered
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**Language**
Spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
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**Phonemes**
Smallest meaningful unit of sound in a language
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**Morphemes**
The smallest pairing of meaning to any given set of sounds
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**Grammar**
The system of rules governing the structure and use of a language
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**Babbling Stage**
Beginning at four months of age
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**One-Word Stage**
Ages one and two, child speaks mostly in single words
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**Two-Word Stage**
Age two, a child speaks mostly two-or three word statements “Get Ball”
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**Telegraphic Speech**
child will use mostly nouns and verbs
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**Overgeneralization**
a person applies something from one event to all other events
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**Full Sentences**
By ages six to ten, children speak in full sentences and master syllable stress patterns to distinguish among words
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**Skinner’s Theory of Language Acquisition**
Skinner believed children learn language through operant conditioning—that children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner
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**Noam Chomsky, Inborn Universal Grammar**
All human languages contain nouns, verbs and adjectives, and humans are born with innate ability to acquire language, and even a genetic predisposition to learn grammatical rules
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**Wernicke’s Area**
Region of the brain that is important for language development
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**Broca’s Area**
Production of Speech. functions to help you put words together fluently to speak more than one word at a time, forming complete sentences
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**Critical Periods for Language**
Childhood seems to represent a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language
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**Linguistic Determinism**
“Language & Thought” Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
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**Intelligence**
The ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situation or solving problems
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**Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (1905)**
Binet and colleague Theodore Simon developed a series of tests designed to assess mental abilities (basis for modern intelligence tests)
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**Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test**
Lewis Terman modified test for the United States, audience of varied ages and broader range of subjects
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General Intelligence (***g factor)***
Charles Spearman Intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed
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**John Horn & Raymond Cattell**
Determined that Spearman’s *g* should be divided into two factors of intelligence
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**Fluid Intelligence**
refers to the ability to reason and think flexibly, tend to diminish with adult aging
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**Crystallized Intelligence**
refers to the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that are acquired throughout life, tend to increase with age
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**Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences**
Theory describes eight distinct types of intelligence based on skills and abilities
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**Savant Syndrome**
Condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
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**Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence**
Suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents, so he made his based on three different factors: Analytical, Practical, and Creative Intelligences
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**Analytical Intelligence**
Solving a well-defined problem with a single answer
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**Practical intelligence**
experimental style that leads to specific learning
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**Creative intelligence**
Generating new ideas to help adopt to novel situations
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**Emotional Intelligence**
The ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions
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**Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS)**
Intelligence test that was first published in 1955 and designed to measure intelligence in adults and older adolescents
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**Heritability**
Portion of variation among individuals in a population that results from genetic causes
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**Flynn Effect (James Flynn)**
IQ scores have been rising worldwide
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**Psychometricians**
“Measurement Psychologists” Focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological data
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**Standardization**
Two-part test development procedure:
Establishes test norms from the test results of the larger representative sample
Ensures that the test is both administered and scored uniformly for all test takers
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**Norms**
Each test taker completes the test under the same conditions as all other participants in the sample group
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**Norm-referenced test**
to compare sample group of test takers to entire population taking the test
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**Achievement Tests**
**D**esigned to measure a person's level of skill, accomplishment, or knowledge in a specific area
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**Aptitude Tests**
Designed to assess what a person is capable of doing or to predict what a person is able to learn or do, often used to assess academic potential or career suitability
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**Group Tests**
Standardized tests can be administered in groups, widely used & efficient
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**Individual Tests**
Tests administered to one person by a trained professional
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**Reliability**
“Consistency” The tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people
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**Test-Retest Reliability**
(Best for Intelligence) administering a test twice at two different points in time
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**Split-Half Reliability**
measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured
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**Validity**
The degree in which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure
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**Content Validity**
test measures all aspects of what it is designed to measure
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**Predictive Validity**
test accurately forecasts performance on a future measure
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Ethics & Standards in Testing
Numerous professional organizations, including APA have produced documents detailing appropriate technical and professional standards for psychological tests to promote the welfare of test takers
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**What IQ Tests Measure**
Interested in looking at your ability to use logic to solve problems, to recognize patterns, and to make rapid connections between different points of information
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**Normal Distribution**
Bell-shaped curve in which the majority of scores lie near or around the average score
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**Intellectual Disability**
Score two or more standard deviations below the norm on a traditional IQ test (70 IQ or below)
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**Intellectually Gifted**
Very few individuals (approximately 0.2%) receive a score of more than 145 (indicating a very high IQ)
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**Memory**
Learning that has **persisted over** time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved
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**Recall**
Being able to access the information without being cued (fill in the blank test without word bank)
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**Recognition**
Identifying information after experiencing it again
(multiple choice test)
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**Relearning**
The process by which we learn something for the second time. This learning process often occurs faster than the first time (study for cumulative final)
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**Information-Processing Model**
Model of memory, compares our mind to a computer in a series of three stages
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**Encoding**
The process of putting information into the memory system
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**Storage**
The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information
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**Retrieval**
The calling back of stored information on demand when it is needed
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**Parallel Processing**
The brain's ability to make sense of several different incoming stimuli at the same time
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**Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model of Memory**
Three different memory systems characterized by **time frames**
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**Sensory Memory**
External events from our senses are held just long enough to be perceived
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**Iconic Memory**
Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, duration of less than a second
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**Echoic Memory**
The branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system
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**Haptic Memory**
The branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch
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**Short-Term Memory**
The information we are currently aware of or thinking about
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**Long-Term Memory**
All the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds
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**Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart’s Levels-of Processing Model**
How long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded
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**Shallow Processing**
Encoding on a basic level based on the structure of appearance
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**Maintenance Rehearsal**
Straight repeating of information in order to memorize it to prolong its presence in STM , can increase the length of time information can be stored to about thirty seconds
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**Deep Processing**
Occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories
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**Semantic Encoding**
**Encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning**
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**Chunking**
Process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units
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**Short-Term Memory (STM)**
The capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period of time (about 20 to 30 seconds)
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**Baddeley’s Working Memory**
System in your brain that allows you to temporarily retain and **manipulate** the stored information involved in a complex process
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**Active State Memory**
Working memory contains the information of which you are immediately aware
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**Memory Span**
Number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory
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**Long-Term Memory (LTM)**
The storage of information over an extended period
Studied by 3 people
