Motor Development Final

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Ballistic Skills

• Force applied to project an object

• Throwing, kicking, and striking

Gauging Throwing Skills

• Product measures (outcome)

• Process Measures (movement pattern)

• Product measures have drawbacks

Which gauging throwing skills do researchers often choose

Process Measures

Characteristics of Early Overarm Throwing

• Mostly arm action

• Elbow points up

• Not much trunk action

• throw executed by elbow extension

Proficient Overarm Throwing

• Preparatory windup used

• Use of opposite legs, long step

• Differentiated trunk rotation

• Upper arm and forearm lag back

• Movements sequential to transfer momentum

Sequences of advances in the performance of a skill that have been determined by what?

Longitudinal study and shown to fall in the same fixed order for all individuals

Everyone reaches the highest step in throwing (true or false)

False

What structural constraints are there for throwing in adulthood?

• Muscular Strength

• ROM

• Age related disorder

Kicking

• Ball is struck, difficult for children with moving ball

• Perceptual Abilities and eye foot coordination needed to make contact

Punting

• The ball dropped from hands

• More difficult than kicking

• Children must time the leg swing to the ball

Sidearm Striking

• Various body parts used

• Implements used

• Mechanical principles similar across tasks

Characteristics of Early Sidearm Striking

• Chopping motion (elbow extension)

• Little leg and trunk rotation

Example of overarm striking without an implement

Volleyball Serve

Example of overarm striking with an implement

Tennis Serve

What are individual constraints in older adult striking?

• Decrease muscle strength

• Flexibility

Halverson’s Phases of Grasping Development

10 Stages

Stage 1 : 16 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)

No Contact

Stage 2: 20 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)****

Contact Only (No thumb)

Stage 3: 20 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases) ****

Primitive Squeeze

Stage 4: 24 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)

Squeeze Grasp

Stage 5: 28 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)

Hand Grasp

Stage 6: 28 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)

Palm Grasp

Stage 7: 32 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)

Superior Palm Grasp

Stage 8: 36 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases) ****

Inferior Forefinger Grasp (Use fingers)

Stage 9: 52 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)

Forefinger Grasp

Stage 10: 52 Weeks (Halverson’s Phases)

Superior-Forefinger Grasp

Developmentalists believe what with Grasping

Prehension as a behavior acquired in steps

Maturationists believe what with Grasping

These changes are motor milestones

What’s aperture?

The opening and closing of the fingers

Do children or adults rely on visual feedback more?

Children

What movement in body scaled?

Grip Movements

A constant ratio of hand size to object size determines when an individual chooses 2 hands (True or False)

True

When do infants demonstrate Prereaching?

Birth to 4 months

What is required for pre reaching to occur?

• Occurs when trunk is supported

• Abilities to move/hold head up

Newborns use visual feedback?

False

When does predominate occur?

Between 4 and 7 months

Visually Elicited Reaching Occurs when?

12 months

• No longer need to see the hand

When do infants become consistent in moving the hand to the mouth?

3 to 4 months

When do children open their mouth in anticipation?

By 5 months

When do infants reach for objects with both arms?

Around 4.5 months

Simultaneous arm activity dissociated occurs after when?

8 months

When can a child hold a cookie jar lid, simultaneously grabbing a cookie?

End of 2 years old

Dominant hemisphere is controlling what?

Projectory Movements

Non-dominant hemisphere is controlling what?

Final Limb Posture

Dominant arm is stronger at ______.

Inter-joint coordination

Nondominant arm is stronger at _______.

Getting to a target

Task constraints that affect difficulty of catching.

• Ball Size

• Shape

• Speed

• Trajectory

• Arrival Point

Sensation

• Neural activity triggered by a stimulus

  • Results in sensory nerve impulses

  • Vision, audition, kinesthesia

Perception

• Multistage process in the CNS

  • Selection, processing, organization, integration of information

  • Identical sensations can yield different perceptions (tickle)

By what month do children have vision adequate for locomotion?

by 6 months

Visual development is linked to what?

Sesation

In the first month what percent of acuity (sharpness) do children have of adult vision?

5%

At 5 years old, what’s the vision?

20/30

At 10 years old, what’s the vision usually?

20/20

Infants may use depth and motion more than edges (true or false)

True

Role of Action in Perception

• Movement necessary to couple perception and movement

  • Ex: animals work on deprivation or institutionalized children

Contemporary Views on Action and Perception

• Give children experience performing skills based on perceptual information

• Reinforce concepts : Shapes and direction

What’s involved in cognitive tasks?

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and contralateral neurocerabellum co-activated during this

What’s involved in cognitive operations?

Prefrontal cortex

What’s the cerebellum for?

• Involved in critical thinking

How many children with ADHD have coordination problems?

½ children with ADHD

Basal Ganglia

• Involved in neural circuits of both motor and cognitive functions

What guides movements?

Perception Action Loops

• This is repeated until the infant refines their perception

Held and Hein: Deprived locomotion experience of kittens with equivalent perceptual experience

• Passive kitties failed to judge depth and to show certain behaviors

Ecological view: Affordance Perceived

• Affordances involve what environmental permits

  • We perceive directly what environment permits us, without cognitive analysis

Proactive in posture and balance maintained is _____

Anticipatory

Reactive in posture and balance maintained is _______

Response to external force

Assaiante Model

• Model Identifies four time periods

What are the four time periods in Assaiante Model

• Birth to standing : Muscle control (cephalocaudial)

• Standing to age 6 : coordination of upper and lower body

• Age 7 years to adolescence : reinforcement of head stabilization

• Adulthood: refined control of degrees of freedom

Individual Constraints of Knowledge Bases

• Interacts with others (especially task constraints)

Reasons performance is related to size of knowledge base

• Reduced need to remember information

• More effective cognitive processes

• Reduced demand on attention

Types of Knowledge

• Declarative

• Procedural

• Strategic

Declarative Knowledge

• Factual Information

• Specific to a topic

Procedural Knowledge

• How to do information

• Specific to a topic

Strategic Knowledge

• General rules and strategies

• Can be generalized across activities

Novice Expert Differences

• Recognize patterns more quickly

• Preplan responses for specific situations

• Spend more time learning about the topic

What comes before procedural knowledge?

Declarative Knowledge

What knowledge develops last?

Strategic knowledge

• Requires practice and experience, allows generalization

Short Term Sensory Store

• Information present is accepted prior to further processing

• Lasts less than 1 second, capacity seemingly limitless

Short Term Memory

• Information delivered from STSS or LTM from further processing

• “Working memory” lasts 1 - 60 seconds, capacity around 7 times

Long Term Memory

• Processed information stored permanently for future use

• Lasts seemingly forever

• Capacity seemingly limitless

What strategies do children use for memory?

• Rehearsal

• Labeling

• Grouping

Reaction Time with speed of cognitive processing in children

• Measured between stimulus onset and response initiation

• Speed increases from age 3 throughout adolescence

What is continuous tracking?

Involves matching movement to a target

Central functions, rather than peripheral, account for children’s slower processing speeds (true or false)

True

Central Function

Attention and speed of memory Processes (above neck)

Peripheral Function

Muscle Contraction (below neck)

Major Limitations in Older Adults

• Decisions base on perceptual information

• Programming of sequences

What increases with aging?

• Neural Noise

  • Lowered signal to noise ratio in CNS

4 Essential Components of Fitness

1. Cardiorespiratory Endurance

2. Strength

3. Flexibility

4. Body Composition

Factors influencing endurance tests

• Neuromuscular Coordination

• Cultural Factors

With growth, energy reserves increase :

• Muscle mass

• Phosphate and glycogen concentration in muscle

• Tolerance of lactic acid concentration

Improved neuromuscular coordination contribute to improved what?

Anaerobic Performance

Highest amount of oxygen body can consume :

Strongly related to lean body mass

Increases linearly from

• 4 years to late adolescence in boys

• 4 years to age 12 to 13 years in girls

Average maximal oxygen uptake per kilogram of body weight falls 1% per year after 20s (true or false)

True