cognition (memory)

the cognition unit that includes memory terms

memory

the ability to store, retain, and recall by learning information over time

encoding

the process of converting information into a form suitable for storage in memory

storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time

retrieval

the process of recalling stored information from memory

multi-store model

a theoretical framework describing memory as consisting of three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, which interact sequentially

sensory memory

the initial stage of memory where sensory information is briefly retained and acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the sense and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds

iconic memory

a brief retention of visual information for a fraction of second before it fades

echoic memory

a brief retention of auditory information and holds sounds about 3-4 seconds

short-term memory

a temporary storage system for information, typically for about 15-30 seconds (limited capacity, MAGIC NUMBER 7)

long-term memory

a system for storing information over extended periods of time, virtually unlimited capacity (knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts)

working memory

a system for storing information over extended periods, short and long-term memories combine

central executive

the part of working memory that manages attention and coordinates information, control center of working memory (planning, problem-solving, and decision-making)

phonological loop

part of working memory for processing auditory information, consists of 2 parts: temporarily holds words and sounds for a few seconds and rehearses and refreshes information in the phonological store

visuospatial sketchpad

part of working memory for visual and spatial processing (navigation, geometry, visual tracking, manipulating objects)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

a long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between neurons (cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory; biological basis for memory)

effortful processing

conscious encoding of information

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks (no deliberate attention)

levels of processing model

a framework suggesting that deeper levels of analysis results in more durable memory retention

shallow encoding

focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning (involves minimal attention and fragile memories)

structural

type of SHALLOW processing that focuses on the physical structure of information

phonemic

SHALLOW processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information

deep encoding

processing information thoroughly by focusing on its meaning/connecting it to existing knowledge (durable and easily retrievable memories)

chunking (grouping)

involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units (short-term memory and easier to remember by reducing cognitive load)

categories (grouping)

organizing information by grouping related items together into categories (easier to access information through associated links between items within same category)

hierarchies (grouping)

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels (efficient search/recall through structured format AND helps understand complex through layered approach)

mnemonics

techniques like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes (makes easier to retrieve information from memory through mental shortcut)

explicit memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

semantic memory

type of EXPLICIT memory that involves the recall of vernal facts/knowledge about the world (concepts, words, symbols, and meanings)

episodic memory

type of EXPLICIT memory the recalls personal experiences and specific events (what, where, and when; first person viewpoint; contexts and emotions)

autobiographical memory

encompasses events and experiences from an individual’s own life (episodic and semantic memory)

implicit memories

does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically

procedural memory

type of IMPLICIT memory involving recalling tasks/skills automatically (driving, typing, playing musical instruments and without conscious thought)

prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action/recall at some future point (like giving a message when you see someone or taking medication at noon)

massed practice “cramming”

content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks (yields quick results but less effective for long-term memory)

spacing effect “distributed practice”

learning is more effective when information is spaced out over time (better consolidation of memories from short to long-term storage)

maintenance rehearsal

learning technique by repeating reviewed information to keep in short-term memory (retains but less useful for long-term)

elaborative rehearsal

technique by deep processing of information by adding meaning/connecting to existing knowledge (stronger, lasting memory through new information linked to old)

retrieval cues

helps bring previously learned information to mind (external: environmental factors/objects that trigger memories; internal: thoughts/feelings associated with original learning)

recall

type of MEMORY RETRIEVAL that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (being able to retrieve from memory randomly)

recognition

type of MEMORY RETRIEVAL that involves identifying information when it is presented (familiarity: sensing that something has been encountered before identification: matching new information with stored knowledge)

context-dependent memory

remembering information better in same environment it was first retained (physical surroundings/similar conditions)

state-dependent memory

memory retrieval is most effective when an individuals is in the same conscious state as they were when memory was formed (physical state/emotional state)

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall information that is consistent with one’s current mood (easily retrieved and sometimes selective recall of memories associated with positive or negative)

serial position effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning (the primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle

primacy effect

people tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow (items are in long-term)

recency effect

MEMORY RECALL where the most recently presented items are recalled more clearly/easily than items in the middle (items are in short term)

testing effect

long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing

metacognition

thinking about one’s thinking (self-monitoring: assessing one’s own learning/memory process; self-regulation: adjusting strategies to improve learning/recall)

the forgetting curve

graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time (faster memory loss soon after learning, why cramming is ineffective)

encoding failure

information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time encoding (does not link new information to new information)

proactive interference

older memories inhibit the ability to learn/remember new information and is more likely to occur when the old and new information are similar

old is blocking new

retroactive interference

new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information and more likely to occur when old and new information are similar

the new is blocking the old

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

common memory experiences where someone feels confident that they know a word/or something of that sort, but cannot immediately recall it (usually surfaces after a short delay)

source amnesia

inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context) but being able to retain the factual knowledge

anterograde amnesia

disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories AFTER the onset of the amnesia, although memories from before the event remain intact

retrograde amnesia

disorder that involves the loss of memories formed BEFORE the onset of amnesia but still able to learn new information and make new memories

infantile amnesia

belief that people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4 (attributed to the ongoing development of the brain’s memory system; hippocampus and prefrontal cortex)

alzheimer’s disease

progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes

repression

distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness (tries to protect the individual and mind from painful memories out of the conscious mind)

constructive memory

memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed and can be integrated with existing memories, influenced by prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences (positive/increasing change)

misinformation effect

happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events (new details can distort/replace parts of the original memory and cause memory of false information instead of what actually happened)