Paper 2 Section A : Exercise Physiology

whats Included in a balanced diet

• carbohydrates

• fats

• proteins

• vitamins

• minerals

• water

• fibre

typres of carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates - found in fruits and are easily digestable. often found in processed food, or anything with refined sugar, and are high GI

Complex carbohydrates - found in nearly every plant based food and usually take longer to digest. Most commonly found in bread, pasta, rice and vegetables.

What are carbohydrates used for

The principal source of energy. They are the main fuel for high intensity anaerobic activity. Carbohydrates are digested and converted into glucose and enter the bloodstream.

Different types of fats

Saturated fats: (LDL) Can be found in both sweet and savoury foods. Too much saturated fat can lead to weight gain and decreased stamina. It also leads to high cholesterol.

Unsaturated fats: (HDL) Also called trans-fat, are found in meat and dairy products but most are made by an industrial process which adds hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils which causes the oils to become solid at room temperature.

What are fats used for

Fats are used as insulation and as a slow-acting energy source for aerobic activity. they cannot be used in anaerobic activity because oxygen is needed to break them down. Fats are also carriers for Vitamin A, D, E and K.

HDL and LDL

HDL, High-density lipids: they transport cholesterol to the liver where it is broken down. Lower the risk of heart disease.

LDL, Low-density lipids: transport cholesterol to the tissues. They are linked to an increased risk of heart disease.

Proteins characteristics and functions

A combination of chemicals called amino acids. They are important for muscle growth and repair, they make enzymes, hormones and haemoglobin. Proteins are a minor source of energy and can be used after carbohydrates and fats and used up.

C and D vitamins

Vitamin C: comes from green vegetables and fruits. Protects cells and keeps them healthy. Helps maintain bones, teeth, gums and connective tissue such as ligaments

Vitamin D: Most vitamin D is from the sun but it can also come from fish and dairy produce. It has a role in the absorbance of calcium which keeps bones and teeth healthy.

B complex vitamins

B1 (thiamin): Comes from yeast, egg, liver, wholegrain bread, nuts, red meat and cereal. It works with other B groups to help break down and release energy from food. Keeps the nervous system healthy

B2/B3 (riboflavin/niacin): Comes from liver, egg, dairy products, vegetables, fruit and cereal. It works with other B groups to help break down and release energy from food. Keeps the skin, eyes and nervous system healthy.

B6: Comes from Meat, fish, eggs, bread, vegetables and cereals. Helps form haemoglobin. Also helps the body use and store energy from protein and carbohydrates in food.

B12 (Folate): comes from red meat, dairy products and fish. Makes red blood cells and keeps the nervous system healthy. Releases energy from food.

Minerals

Help assist in bodily function. They are usually dissolved by electrolytes. They faciliate transmission of nerve impulses and anable effective muscle contraction. They come from Meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, cereal, vegetables, fruits and nuts.

Fibre

Good sources of fibre are wholemeal bread and pasta, nuts, potatoes, seeds, fruit and vegetables. Fibre is important during exercise as it can slow down the time it takes the body to break down food, which results in a slower, more sustained release of energy. Dietary fibre also helps prevent constipation and aids digestion

Dehydration

When the body is losing more fluids than it is taking in

Water

Water is important in a persons body as it is about 60% of a persons body mass. It transports nutrients, hormones and waste products around the body. when you exercise your muscles increase in heat, water prevents you from overheating

What happens during dehydration

• blood viscosity increases, reducing blood flow to muscles.

• reduced sweating to decrease water los, which increases core temperature

• muscle fatigue and headaches

• reduction in exchange of waste products and transportation of nutrients

• increased heart rate, therefore lowering cardiac output.

• decreased performance, reaction time and decision making

Glycogen loading

A form of dietary manipulation to increase glycogen stores over and above that which can normally be stored. Used by endurance performers

Positives and negative of glycogen loading

positives - increased glycogen storage and stores in the muscles, delays fatiigue, increases endurance capacity.

Negatives - water retnetion and bloating, heavy legs, weight increase, irritability and lack of energy after glycoloading

Creatine monohydrate

A supplement of a compound which the body naturally makes to supply energy for muscular contraction and can increase athletic performance

Positives and negative of creatine monohydrate

Positives - aims to provide ATP, replenishes phosphocreatine stores, allows ATP-PC system to last longer and improves muscle mass.

Negatives - muscle cramps, diarrhoea, vomiting and bloating, hinders aerobic performance

Sodium bicarbonate

Antacid which can be taken as a supplement to increase buffering capacity of the blood so it can neutralise the effects of lactic acid during high intensity activity.

Positives and negative of sodium bicarbonate

postives - reduces acidity in the muslce cells, delays fatigue, increases buffering capacity of the blood.

negatives - vomiting, diarrhoea, cramping and bloating

Caffiene

A naturally occuring stimulant

Positives and negatives of caffiene

Positives - increase mental alertness, redfuces effects of fatigue, delays use of glycogen stores, improves decision making and reaction time, may benefit aerobic performance

Negatives - loss of fine control, against the rules in large quantities in most sports, insomia, muscle cramping, irregular heartbeat, gastric distress

Borg scale

Rate of percieved exhaustion - how you feel during exercise

Stages of warmup

stage 1 - pulse raiser
stage 2 - stretches
stage 3 - sport specific skills

stage 1 of a warmup

• increase blood flow

• increase muscle temperature

• increases oxygen delivery to skeletal muscles

• increases speed of muscular contractions

• increased production of synovial fluid

stage 2 of a warmup

• static stretching - active and passive

• ballistic stretching

• increases the elasticity of muscle

• reduces the risk of injury

stage 3 of a warmup

• movement patterns

• rehearsal of movement

• competition intensity

• increase decision making speed

• mental preparation to reduce anxiety

Principals of training

• Frequency

• Intensity

• Type

• Time

• Specificity

• Progressive

• Overload

• Reversability

• Recovery and rest

Periodisation

Dividing the training year into specific sections for specific purposes

Macrocycle

Period of training which involves a long term goal

Preperation period

similar to pre-season training where fitness is developed

Competition period

the performance period where skills and techniques are refined

Transition period

The end of the season where recovery takes place

Mesocycle

usually a 4-12 week period of training with a particular focus such as power

Microcycle

The description of a week or a few days of training sessions

Tapering

Reducing the volume or intensity of training leading up to a performance

Peaking

Planning and organising training so that a performer is at their peak, mentally and physically before a major competition

Training methods

• continous training

• fartlek (speedplay)

• interval training

• circuit training

• weight training

• PNF

Continuous training

• Low intensity exercise for long periods of time without rest intervals

• this develops stamina and places stress on the aerobic system

• improves cardiovascular and respiratory systems and the ability to take up and transport oxygen

Fartlek training

• swedish word for speed play

• type of continuous training where you have intervals of both aerobic and anaerobic exercise eg 10 min jogging, 2 min sprinting

• better for games players as it imitates a game

• can also be used for uphill and downhill work

Interval training

• used by elite athletes to improve anaerobic power

• uses intervals of high intensity training followed by rest periods

• HIIT is a type of interval training

Circuit training

• athletes perform a certain set of exercises at different ‘stations’

• arm exercises, trunk exercises, leg exercises

• bodyweight exercises

• plyometrics used in circuits

weight training

• muscular strength and endurance

• series of resistance exercises

• free weights and machine weights

• used in sets and repetitions

• 80% of 1RM

PNF

• proprioneaurmuscular facilitation

• advanced stretching technique

• muscle is stretched, then isometrically contracted, then stretched further

• golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles

Acute injuries

• sudden and severe pain

• inflammation

• Includes fractures, dislocations, sprains and strains

Type of Fractures

• comminuted - bone splits into 3 or more pieces

• spiral - winding break

• longitudinal - break along the length of the bone

• buckle - bone deforms but doesn’t break

• hairline - a partial fracture that is difficult to detect

• Greenstick occurs in children where the bone partially fractures on one side but doesn’t break completely. younger children’s bones are softer and more elastic

Fractures

A break or crack in a bone

simple or closed does not break the skin barrier whereas a compound or open fracture damages skin or soft tissue. There is a higher risk of infection in these cases

Dislocation

• occur at a joint

• happens when the ends of bones are forced out of position

• often happen in falls or contact with another player

Strains

• pulled or torn muscle

• muscle fibres are stretcheed too far and tear

Sprains

• when any damage occurs to ligaments

• there is excessive twisting and turning or excessive force applied to a joint.

• ligament may be stretched too far or torn

Chronic inuries

• pain when you complete exercise

• dull ache when you rest

• inflammation

• includes Achilles tendonitis, stress fractures, and tennis elbow

Achilles Tendonitis

tendons which connect bones and muscles are overused, specifically the Achilles tendon which connects your heel to your calf muscle. It is the largest tendon in the body

Stress fracture

an overuse injury where the area becomes tender and swollen. It occurs when muscles become tired and can no longer absorb the shock of exercise. fatigued muscles transfer the stress overload into the bones which results in tiny cracks

most common in weight-bearing bones like the feet

Tennis Elbow

Overuse injury of the muscles attached to the elbow which are used to straighten the wrist. Also called lateral epicondylitis

injury prevention methods

• screening

• protective equipment

• warmup

• flexibilty training

• taping and bracing

• proprioceptive training

• strength training

• hyperbarric chambers

• cryotherapy

• hydrotherapy

Recovery methods from exercise

• compression garments

• massage

• foam rollers

• cold therapy

• ice baths

• crytherapy

importance of sleep for recovery

• Deep sleep is important for muscle recovery

• The deepest part of sleep is the third stage non-REM sleep

• Brain waves and blood flow is directed away from the brain towards the muscles to restore energy

• Minimum of 8-9 hours

importance of nutrition for recovery

• Replenishing glycogen stores

• Needs to happen in the first 20 minutes

• Chocolate milk - carbs and protein

• Liquid can be absorbed faster than solids

Static stretching

Muscle is held in a position for 30 seconds or more

ballistic stretching

involves a stretch with swinging or bouncing movements to push a body part even further

Screening

It can be used to help athletes identify the risk of complications from exercise, prepare performers for their sport, enhance recovery and reduce injury

help identify muscle imbalances, core strength, and joint ROM. however, it isnt 100% accurate and may miss problems or identify problems that don’t exist. It may also increase anxiety

Protective equipment

wearing correct equipment may help reduce injuries

eg. shin pads, scrum cap, gum shield, pads, or eye gaurds

taping and bracing

help support and stabilise joints to reduce the risk of injury. Bracing is m,ore serious and uses hinge supports to give extra stability, helps prevent further injury

strength training

uses resistance to prepare the body for exercise, reducing the risk of injury

hyperbaric chambers

reduce recovery time for an injury. Pressurised with 100% oxygen.

The pressure increases the amount of oxygen the amount of oxygen that can be breathed in and more oxygen can be diffused into the injured area. excess oxygen dissolves into the blood plasma where it reduces swelling and both stimulate white blood cell activity and increase blood supply to injured areas

cryotherapy

use of cooling to treat injuries. RICE and POLICE are more common.

Cryogenic chambers where liquid nitrogen is used to cool down to -100ºC for up to 3 minutes, helps heal injured cells

hydrotherapy

takes place in warm water and is used to improve blood circulation, relieve pain and relax muscles, placing less pressure on the joints. the resistance of the water helps strengthen the muscles.

compression garments

elasticated pieces of medical grade clothing to help lactate removal, DOMS and reduce inflammation

massage

• prevent or relieve soft tissue injuries

• increases blood flow to soft tissue

• removes lactic acid, relieves tension

• pressure breaks down scar tissue

foam rollers

• self massage

• can help relieve tension and tightness in muscles and fascia (knots in muscles)

cold therapy

• after intense exercise, it can give pain relief

• gives Oedema relief ( a build up of fluid which causes swelling

• reduces inflammation

• increase ROM

ice baths

• 5-10 minutes

• focuses on lower limbs

• reduce swelling

• improve ROM

Active stretch

Stretched position is held by a contracted muscle

Passive stretch

stretch postion is held by an external force eg. with a partner

proprioceptive training

subconscious process using a system of receptor nerves, located in muscles, tendons and joints. uses hopping, jumping and balance exercise to restore lost proprioreception and teach the body to control the postition of an injured joint.

free weights

need core stability to be controlled, and have to stabilise weight and lift it

Machine weights

isolate specific muscles and specific movements - this is good as it makes it safer to use and also targets specific muscles

Body weight exercise

can do it anywhere, less chance of injury, can make it sport specific(any movement patterns you want)

therabands

resistive bands used during rehab

different thickness for different resistance. they are cheaper, portable, can do lots of different exercises with them including stretching

POLICE

• protection

• optimal

• loading

• Ice

• Compression

• elevation

Non REM sleep

No rapid eye movement

3 stages of sleep which get progressively deeper