Aqa A level Sociology Education

Social solidarity (Functionalism)

Education transmits a common culture and shared values, fostering a sense of belonging to a wider society and binding individuals to the collective conscience.

Teaching of specialist skills (Functionalism)

Education prepares individuals for future occupational roles by providing specific knowledge and skills needed for a complex, division-of-labour society.

Meritocracy (Functionalism)

The belief that individuals achieve status and rewards based on their own efforts and abilities, with education acting as the primary institution for advancement based on merit and providing equality of opportunity.

Durkheim (Functionalism)

Argued education transmits society's norms/values (socialisation) and teaches specialist skills for the workplace, creating social cohesion and economic efficiency.

Parsons (Functionalism)

Saw school as a 'focal socialising agency' and a bridge between family and wider society, where individuals are judged by 'universalistic standards' (performance/effort) rather than 'particularistic standards' (who they are).

Role allocation (Davis and Moore)

Education 'sifts and sorts' individuals by ability, allocating the most talented to the most important and highly rewarded positions to maintain social efficiency.

Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) (Marxism)

Education transmits the dominant ideology (ruling-class beliefs) to maintain capitalism, instilling obedience and making exploitation seem natural and fair (Althusser).

Correspondence theory (Marxism)

Schools mirror the workplace by promoting hierarchy, competition, lack of control over work, external rewards (grades/wages), and submission to authority, preparing students for capitalist economy roles (Bowles and Gintis).

Reproduction and legitimisation of social class inequality (Marxism)

Education reproduces class inequality by failing working-class pupils for working-class jobs, and legitimises it by promoting the myth of meritocracy, blaming individual failure rather than systemic issues.

Althusser (Marxism)

Developed the concept of the Ideological State Apparatus, explaining how institutions like education serve the interests of the ruling class by transmitting dominant ideology and reproducing class relations.

Bowles and Gintis (Marxism)

Authors of 'Schooling in Capitalist America', who proposed correspondence theory, arguing that education actively serves to prepare a submissive and exploited workforce for capitalism.

Willis (Marxism)

His study 'Learning to Labour' showed how working-class 'lads' resisted school but, paradoxically, ended up in working-class jobs, reproducing class inequality through their own agency.

Myth of meritocracy (New Right)

New Right thinkers believe state-controlled education is inefficient and fails to deliver true meritocracy; competition and parental choice, not state intervention, are needed to improve standards and opportunity.

Parental choice (New Right)

Giving parents more choice over schools will force schools to compete for students, thereby improving standards and making schools more accountable to their 'consumers' (parents and students).

Marketisation of education (New Right)

Introducing market principles into education, such as competition between schools, parental choice, league tables, and funding formulas, with the aim of increasing efficiency and standards by treating schools more like businesses and students as consumers.

Privatisation of education (New Right)

Involves a greater role for private companies and businesses in running schools or providing educational services, believing that private sector efficiency can improve education beyond what the state can provide.

Education Reform Act 1988 (ERA)

A foundational New Right policy under Margaret Thatcher, which introduced a National Curriculum, SATs (Standard Assessment Tests), league tables, OFSTED inspections, formula funding (where funding depends on student numbers), and open enrolment, all aimed at creating a marketised education system.

Chubb and Moe (New Right)

American New Right theorists (1990) who argued that state education in the USA had failed due to lack of competition. They proposed a market-based solution, advocating a system where parents are given 'vouchers' to spend on the school of their choice, forcing schools to compete for students and improve.

Trends based upon receipt of FSM

Students who are eligible for Free School Meals (FSM) consistently achieve lower academic outcomes than their non-FSM peers, highlighting the impact of material deprivation and social class on educational attainment.

Trends based upon gender

Historically, boys often outperformed girls, but since the late 1980s, girls have generally outperformed boys at all key stages, particularly at GCSE and A-level. However, there are nuances, with some boys' groups (e.g., working-class boys) struggling more than others.

Trends based upon ethnic groups

Achievement varies significantly between different ethnic groups. For example, Chinese and Indian pupils often outperform the national average, while Black Caribbean and some White working-class pupils tend to achieve below the national average. Internal variations within these broad categories are also important (e.g., Bangladeshi girls vs. boys).

Material factors (Social class achievement)

Includes poor diet, inadequate housing, lack of educational resources, inability to afford uniform, and stress/caring responsibilities for working-class children, all impacting attainment.

Restricted code (Bernstein)

A language code typically used by working-class individuals, characterized by context-dependent meaning and limited vocabulary, disadvantaging them in schools that use the Elaborated Code.

Elaborated code (Bernstein)

A language code typically used by middle-class individuals, characterized by context-free meaning and wider vocabulary, aligning with the language used by educational institutions.

Subcultural values (Sugarman)

Working-class subcultures display values like fatalism, collectivism, instant gratification, and present-time orientation, which contrast with middle-class values of deferred gratification, individualism, and future-time orientation, potentially hindering educational success.

Parental education (Social class achievement)

Middle-class parents often have higher levels of education, enabling them to better support homework, communicate with teachers, understand the system, and instill high aspirations in their children.

Habitus (Bourdieu)

Dispositions, tastes, and ways of thinking/acting shared by a social class; the middle-class habitus often aligns with the education system's values, giving an advantage.

Cultural capital (Bourdieu)

Non-financial social assets such as knowledge, tastes, and language valued by the dominant culture, which middle-class families possess and can leverage for educational success.

Economic capital (Bourdieu)

Financial assets and income that can be used to acquire educational advantages, such as private tuition or resources, relevant within the educational 'field'.

Social capital (Bourdieu)

Networks and connections that provide advantages, enabling middle-class parents to navigate the educational system more effectively.

Field (Bourdieu)

The educational system itself, where different forms of capital are valued and exchanged, benefiting those with the 'right' cultural capital.

Feinstein

Argued parental education is the most important factor influencing children's achievement, often more so than income or class.

Douglas

Found parental interest and encouragement were key factors, with middle-class parents showing more interest in their children's education.

Smith and Noble

Highlighted the 'costs of free schooling', showing how hidden educational costs (uniform, trips, equipment) impact poorer families.

Bull

Referred to the 'cost of free schooling' and how lack of funds can lead to a lack of educational equipment and experiences for working-class children.

Howard

Noted that children from poorer homes have poorer nutrition, leading to weaker immune systems and lower energy levels, impacting concentration and attendance.

Waldfogel and Washbrook

Showed that children from poorer backgrounds are more likely to live in crowded, damp accommodation, which can lead to ill health and higher absence rates.

Sullivan

Studied the relationship between cultural capital and achievement, finding that reading complex fiction and visiting historical sites contributes to higher grades.

Reay

Examined the choices and experiences of working-class mothers relating to their children's schooling, showing the sacrifices they make despite lacking cultural capital.

Gewirtz et al. (1995)

Identified 'privileged skilled choosers' among middle-class parents who, with greater cultural and economic capital, are better able to navigate marketised education, understanding league tables and admission criteria.

Residual cultural capital (Ethnicity achievement)

Cultural assets that particular ethnic minority groups possess but that schools might overlook or undervalue, impacting their ability to navigate the marketised system effectively and select schools.

Racism in wider society (Ethnicity achievement)

Job discrimination and other forms of racism can limit opportunities for ethnic minority parents, impacting family income and child support for education, leading to material deprivation for children.

Cultural differences (parental attitudes to education by ethnicity)

Varying cultural attitudes, such as the high value placed on education by some Asian families (e.g., Chinese, Indian) leading to higher achievement, contrasted with some suggestions of anti-school subcultures among certain Black Caribbean boys.

Government policy on immigration (Ethnicity achievement)

Policies regarding immigration can impact educational achievement through language barriers for new arrivals, trauma associated with migration, or the socio-economic status of immigrant families.

Gillborn and Mirza

Challenged the 'myth of the Asian miracle', arguing that while some Asian groups do well, systemic biases can still disadvantage them, highlighting that statistics can be misleading and not reflect universal success.

Strand

Examined the achievement of Gypsy Travellers, identifying them as one of the lowest-performing groups due to factors like poverty, exclusion, and a highly mobile lifestyle.

Modood

Found that while some Asian groups (e.g., Indian and Chinese) achieve very highly, they often come from middle-class backgrounds, suggesting that class mediates ethnic differences in achievement.

Ball (and others)

Highlighted that marketisation policies (e.g., parental choice) may not equally benefit all ethnic groups, as some parents lack the cultural capital to navigate the system effectively.

Basit

Explored the high value placed on education within Pakistani and Bangladeshi families, with parents making significant sacrifices for their children's schooling, often overcoming material disadvantage through cultural commitment.

Luptun

Studied four working-class schools (two predominantly White, two predominantly Pakistani), finding that while parental support was present in both, the White working-class parents often perceived education as less important.

Bhatti

Researched the impact of family, religion, and community on the educational experiences of Pakistani and Bangladeshi children, stressing the importance of family support and religious values.

Vincent et al

Explored how black middle-class parents challenge teacher stereotypes and actively engage with schools to ensure their children receive fair opportunities, demonstrating proactive engagement.

Wright et al

Examined the experiences of ethnic minority children in primary schools, finding that teachers often had racialised assumptions and expectations leading to different treatment, such as less attention for Asian pupils.

Racialised expectations / teacher racism

Teachers may have preconceived ideas or stereotypes about the abilities and behaviour of pupils from different ethnic backgrounds, leading to differential treatment (e.g., Black boys being seen as disruptive, Asian girls as passive).

Institutional racism

Refers to discrimination that is built into the everyday workings of institutions like schools, rather than being overt acts of prejudice. This can manifest in curriculum content, assessment procedures, disciplinary policies, or lack of support for ethnic minority students.

Ethnocentric curriculum

The curriculum may reflect the culture, history, and values of the majority ethnic group (often White British), marginalising and devaluing the cultures and histories of ethnic minority pupils. This can lead to a sense of alienation and disengagement.

Labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy (Ethnicity)

Negative labels (e.g., 'low ability', 'disruptive') given by teachers to ethnic minority pupils can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where pupils internalise the label and act out the behaviour expected of them, ultimately leading to underachievement.

Formation of ethnic subcultures

In response to negative labelling or a hostile school environment, some ethnic minority pupils may form subcultures (e.g., anti-school subcultures) that resist the school's values and norms, often leading to lower academic engagement.

Speech hierarchies

Certain forms of language and communication styles are often privileged in schools. For example, Standard English is typically valued over other dialects or languages, which can disadvantage pupils whose home language is not English or who use other forms of speech.

Mirza

Studied Black girls, finding that they resisted teacher labels and racism but still often underachieved due to covert institutional racism, opting for strategies like 'pro-education but anti-school'.

Gillborn

Argued that the education system is institutionally racist, systematically disadvantaging Black pupils through processes like the 'new IQism' (assumptions about ability) and racialised expectation, leading to differential access to opportunities (e.g., sets, exam tiers).

Gillborn and Youdell

Introduced the concept of the 'A*-C economy' and 'educational triage', arguing that marketisation policies lead schools to focus resources on students perceived to be C/D borderline, often at the expense of Black pupils who are disproportionately viewed as having limited potential.

Troyna and Williams

Pointed out that schools often adopt a 'tokenistic' approach to multiculturalism, addressing surface-level differences rather than tackling systemic institutional racism.

Coard

Argued that the ethnocentric curriculum contributes to the underachievement of Black pupils by devaluing their culture and history, leading to a sense of inferiority.

Sewell

Argued that Black boys respond to school racism in different ways, identifying groups like 'rebels' (anti-school), 'conformists' (pro-school), 'retreatists', and 'innovators', suggesting that resistance can be complex and not always lead to failure.

Archer and Francis

Studied Chinese students, finding that they were often praised as 'model minorities' but also stereotyped as passive and conformist, which could limit their opportunities to take leadership roles.

Mac an Ghail

Examined the experiences of Afro-Caribbean and Asian boys in a comprehensive school, showing how they formed distinct subcultures as a response to racism and labelling.

Shain

Looked at the high achievement of South Asian girls, attributing it to strong family support, cultural emphasis on education, and a desire to overcome potential discrimination.

Connolly

Studied primary school children, finding that teachers constructed masculinity differently for different ethnic groups – for example, seeing South Asian boys as feminine and Black boys as disruptive.

Tripartite system (1944)

Introduced three types of secondary schools (grammar for academic, secondary modern for practical, technical for vocational) with selection at age 11 via the '11+ exam'. It aimed to provide different education paths but often reinforced class divisions.

Selection by mortgage

Refers to the idea that despite the 11+ intending to be meritocratic, middle-class parents could effectively 'buy' their children into better schools by moving to areas with high-performing grammar schools or paying for private tuition for the 11+.

Internal selection (Setting and Streaming)

Grouping students by perceived ability within schools (setting for specific subjects, streaming for all subjects), which can lead to labelling, self-fulfilling prophecies, and differential access to curriculum content.

Covert selection

Refers to subtle, often unofficial, methods schools use to deter certain types of students (e.g., from poorer families or specific ethnic backgrounds) from applying, or to encourage preferred students.

National Curriculum (ERA 1988)

A standard national curriculum introduced to ensure all students are taught the same core subjects and content across England.

SATs (Standard Assessment Tests)

Standardised national tests at various key stages, designed to measure pupil progress and school performance, forming part of the Education Reform Act 1988.

League tables

Published rankings of school performance (e.g., exam results) designed to inform parental choice and stimulate competition between schools, a key marketisation policy.

Creation of OFSTED

The government body responsible for inspecting and regulating schools to ensure standards are met and to hold schools accountable for their performance.

Formula funding

A system where schools receive funding based on the number of pupils they attract, incentivising schools to compete for students within a marketised education system.

Open enrolment

Policy allowing parents to apply to any school, technically increasing choice, but often limited by school capacity and geographical access, particularly impacting disadvantaged families.

Marketisation policies

The overall strategy of introducing competition, choice, and consumer power into the education system, driven by New Right ideas (e.g., all components of the ERA 1988).

Endogenous privatisation

Where schools themselves are run as private businesses (e.g., academies converted into Multi-Academy Trusts) or by private companies directly managing educational provision.

Exogenous privatisation

Where private companies provide services to state schools (e.g., catering, cleaning, IT support, building maintenance, assessment services) without directly running the schools.

Multi-academy trusts (MATs)

Groups of academies working together under a single governance structure, often managed by a private or charitable trust, seen as a form of endogenous privatisation and a contemporary policy trend.

Comprehensive schools

Introduced from the 1960s to replace the tripartite system, aiming to abolish selection and provide a common education for all children regardless of background, fostering social mixing and equality.

Education Action Zones (EAZs)

Initiatives in deprived areas (1998-2005) providing extra funding to a cluster of schools, aiming to raise standards through innovative projects and community involvement.

Sure Start

Government programme (from 1998) providing integrated early years education, childcare, family support, and health services in disadvantaged areas, aiming to improve outcomes for young children.

Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA)

Payments made to post-16 students from low-income families to help with educational costs and encourage them to stay in further education (abolished in England, still exists in other UK nations).

Pupil premium

Additional funding given to schools in England for pupils who are eligible for Free School Meals (FSM), to close attainment gaps between them and their more affluent peers.

GIST/WISE

Initiatives (Girls into Science and Technology / Women into Science and Engineering) aimed at encouraging girls to pursue STEM subjects, in an effort to combat gendered subject choices and career paths and promote gender equality.

Multiculturalism (Policy)

Policies promoting the recognition and valuing of different cultures within schools, aiming to make the curriculum more inclusive and address issues of ethnocentrism, often to improve achievement of ethnic minority pupils.

Progress 8

A government measure introduced in 2016 for secondary schools, assessing the progress pupils make from the end of primary school (Key Stage 2) to the end of secondary school (Key Stage 4), designed to encourage schools to focus on all pupils, not just those on the C/D borderline.

PISA/TIMMS rankings

International comparisons like the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) influence national educational policies, as governments often react to their country's relative performance by reforming curriculum or teaching methods.

Globalisation of policy (Alexander)

Alexander examined the 'globalisation of policy', noting how educational ideas and practices are increasingly shared and adopted across different countries, often through the influence of international organisations.

Policy borrowing (Ball)

Stephen Ball has extensively written on the impact of globalisation and marketisation on educational policy, highlighting how global policy ideas are imported and adapted, often leading to increased inequality through 'policy borrowing'.

Global education industry (Tomlinson)

Tomlinson discussed the global