Aqa A level Sociology Education
Functionalist views of the role and purpose of education
Key concepts: social solidarity; teaching of specialist skills; meritocracy
Social solidarity: Education transmits a common culture and shared values, fostering a sense of belonging to a wider society. This is achieved by teaching subjects like history, literature, and religious education, binding individuals to the collective conscience.
Teaching of specialist skills: Education prepares individuals for their future occupational roles by providing specific knowledge and skills required for a complex, division-of-labour society. This ensures that the economy's diverse needs are met.
Meritocracy: The belief that individuals should achieve status and rewards based on their own efforts and abilities, rather than on their social background. Education is seen as the primary institution through which individuals can advance based on merit, providing equality of opportunity.
Theorists: Durkheim; Parsons
Durkheim: Argued that education has two main functions: transmitting society's norms and values (socialisation) and teaching specialist skills required for the workplace. This creates social cohesion and economic efficiency.
Parsons: Saw the school as a 'focal socialising agency' and described it as a bridge between the family and wider society. Within the family, children are judged by 'particularistic standards' (e.g., based on who they are), while in school and society, they are judged by 'universalistic standards' (e.g., based on their performance and effort), promoting meritocracy and preparing them for the demands of the adult world.
Role allocation - Davis and Moore
Role allocation: Davis and Moore (1945) argued that social stratification is necessary for a functional society. Education is a key mechanism for 'sifting and sorting' individuals according to their abilities. It allocates the most talented individuals to the most important and highly rewarded positions, ensuring that key roles are filled by the most able and motivated people, thus maintaining social efficiency.
Marxist views of the role and purpose of education
Key concepts: ideological state apparatus; correspondence theory; reproduction and legitimisation of social class inequality
Ideological State Apparatus (ISA): Building on Althusser's theory, education functions as an ISA, transmitting the dominant ideology (beliefs, values, norms of the ruling class) to maintain and legitimise the capitalist system. It instills obedience, conformity, and acceptance of hierarchy, making capitalist exploitation appear natural and fair.
Correspondence theory: Bowles and Gintis (1976) argued that there is a close 'correspondence' between the social relationships in the classroom and those in the workplace. Schools mirror the workplace by promoting hierarchy, competition, lack of control over work, external rewards (grades/wages), and submission to authority, thus preparing students for their roles in a capitalist economy.
Reproduction and legitimisation of social class inequality: Marxists argue that education reproduces class inequality by failing working-class pupils and ensuring that they end up in working-class jobs. It also legitimises this inequality by promoting the myth of meritocracy, making it seem that those who fail do so because of their lack of ability or effort, rather than systemic disadvantages. This masks the true causes of class inequality.
Theorists: Althusser; Bowles and Gintis; Willis
Althusser: Developed the concept of the Ideological State Apparatus, explaining how institutions like education serve the interests of the ruling class by transmitting dominant ideology and reproducing class relations.
Bowles and Gintis: Authors of 'Schooling in Capitalist America', which put forward the correspondence theory, arguing that education actively serves to prepare a submissive and exploited workforce for capitalism.
Willis: His study 'Learning to Labour' (1977) explored how a group of working-class 'lads' resisted the school's middle-class values but, paradoxically, by doing so, condemned themselves to working-class jobs similar to their fathers, thereby reproducing class inequality through their own agency.
New Right views of the role and purpose of education
Key concepts: myth of meritocracy; parental choice; marketisation of education; privatisation of education; Education Reform Act 1988
Myth of meritocracy: New Right thinkers argue that the state-controlled education system is inefficient and fails to deliver true meritocracy because it does not adequately respond to the needs of individual students or the economy. They believe competition and parental choice, rather than state intervention, are needed to improve standards and opportunity.
Parental choice: Advocates argue that giving parents more choice over schools will force schools to compete for students, thereby improving standards and making schools more accountable to their 'consumers' (parents and students).
Marketisation of education: Introducing market principles into education, such as competition between schools, parental choice, league tables, and funding formulas, with the aim of increasing efficiency and standards by treating schools more like businesses and students as consumers.
Privatisation of education: Involves a greater role for private companies and businesses in running schools or providing educational services, believing that private sector efficiency can improve education beyond what the state can provide.
Education Reform Act 1988: A foundational New Right policy under Margaret Thatcher, which introduced a National Curriculum, SATs (Standard Assessment Tests), league tables, OFSTED inspections, formula funding (where funding depends on student numbers), and open enrolment, all aimed at creating a marketised education system.
Theorists: Chubb and Moe
Chubb and Moe: American New Right theorists (1990) who argued that state education in the USA had failed due to lack of competition. They proposed a market-based solution, advocating a system where parents are given 'vouchers' to spend on the school of their choice, forcing schools to compete for students and improve.
Differential Educational Achievement by Social Class, Gender and Ethnicity
Trends
Examines patterns of achievement (e.g., exam results, progression to higher education) across different social groups in society.
Trends based upon receipt of FSM
Students who are eligible for Free School Meals (FSM) consistently achieve lower academic outcomes than their non-FSM peers, highlighting the impact of material deprivation and social class on educational attainment.
Trends based upon gender
Historically, boys often outperformed girls, but since the late 1980s, girls have generally outperformed boys at all key stages, particularly at GCSE and A-level. However, there are nuances, with some boys' groups (e.g., working-class boys) struggling more than others.
Trends based upon ethnic groups
Achievement varies significantly between different ethnic groups. For example, Chinese and Indian pupils often outperform the national average, while Black Caribbean and some White working-class pupils tend to achieve below the national average. Internal variations within these broad categories are also important (e.g., Bangladeshi girls vs. boys).
External factors influencing social class differences in achievement
Material factors
Diet: Poor nutrition can lead to weakened immune systems, concentration problems, and absenteeism.
Housing: Overcrowding can lead to lack of space for study, disturbed sleep, and ill health. Poor housing conditions (e.g., damp) can also affect health and attendance.
Lack of resources: Working-class families may lack funds for educational resources such as books, computers, private tutors, or school trips, placing their children at a disadvantage.
Uniform: Inability to afford new or regulation uniform can lead to bullying, social exclusion, and feelings of shame, impacting attendance and engagement.
Stress and caring responsibilities: Working-class children may experience higher levels of stress due to poverty, or take on caring responsibilities for younger siblings or sick family members, impacting their schoolwork and attendance.
Cultural factors
Socio-linguistics (Bernstein): Basil Bernstein distinguished between the 'restricted code' (used by working-class, context-dependent, limited vocabulary) and the 'elaborated code' (used by middle-class, context-free, wider vocabulary). Schools typically operate using the elaborated code, disadvantaging working-class children.
Subcultural values (Sugarman): Barry Sugarman (1970) argued that working-class subcultures display values such as fatalism (belief in fate), collectivism (group over individual), instant gratification (seeking immediate pleasure), and present-time orientation (living for today). These values contrast with the middle-class values of deferred gratification, individualism, and future-time orientation, which are more aligned with educational success.
Parental education: Middle-class parents often have higher levels of education themselves, meaning they are better equipped to help their children with homework, communicate with teachers, understand the educational system, and instill high aspirations.
Cultural capital
Habitus: Pierre Bourdieu's concept of 'habitus' refers to the dispositions, tastes, and ways of thinking and acting that are shared by a particular social class. The middle-class habitus is often aligned with the values of the education system, giving middle-class children an advantage.
Capital: Bourdieu identified different forms of capital: economic (money/assets), cultural (knowledge, tastes, language valued by the dominant culture), and social (networks and connections). Middle-class families possess more of these forms of capital, which can be 'cashed in' for educational success.
Field: The educational system itself is a 'field' where different forms of capital are valued and exchanged. Those with the 'right' cultural capital (e.g., familiarity with classical music, abstract ideas) are better equipped to succeed.
In marketisation: In a marketised education system, middle-class parents, with their greater cultural and economic capital, are better able to 'play the system' – understanding league tables, admission criteria, and making informed school choices (e.g., Gewirtz et al. (1995) identified 'privileged skilled choosers').
Theorists / related factors: Feinstein; Douglas; Smith and Noble; Bull; Tanner; Waldfogel and Washbrook; Howard; Sugarman; Bernstein; Bourdieu; Sullivan; Reay; Gewitz et al; Evans
Feinstein: Argued that parental education is the most important factor influencing children's achievement, often more so than income or class.
Douglas: Found that parental interest and encouragement were key factors, with middle-class parents showing more interest in their children's education.
Smith and Noble: Highlighted the 'costs of free schooling', showing how hidden costs of education (uniform, trips, equipment) impact poorer families.
Bull: Referred to the 'cost of free schooling' and how lack of funds can lead to a lack of educational equipment and experiences for working-class children.
Howard: Noted that children from poorer homes have poorer nutrition, leading to weaker immune systems and lower energy levels, impacting their concentration and attendance.
Waldfogel and Washbrook: Showed that children from poorer backgrounds are more likely to live in crowded, damp accommodation, which can lead to ill health and higher absence rates.
Sullivan: Studied the relationship between cultural capital and achievement, finding that reading complex fiction and visiting historical sites contributes to higher grades.
Reay: Examined the choices and experiences of working-class mothers relating to their children's schooling, showing the sacrifices they make despite lacking cultural capital.
External factors: Habitus, capital and field in marketisation
Note: Habitus, capital, and field are used to explain how social class shapes educational outcomes within a marketised system by providing middle-class parents with advantages in navigating school choice, understanding school cultures, and supporting their children's academic success. This means that while marketisation promises meritocracy, it can inadvertently reproduce existing class inequalities.
External factors influencing achievement of different ethnic groups (Page 4)
Key concepts: material factors (including racism in wider society); cultural differences (parental attitudes to education); cultural capital (including residual cultural capital and its impact on school selection); government policy on immigration
Material factors (including racism in wider society): Some ethnic minority groups, particularly Bangladeshi and Pakistani, are more likely to experience poverty, overcrowded housing, and unemployment. This means children may lack resources, face health issues, and experience stress. Racism in wider society (e.g., job discrimination) can also limit opportunities for parents, impacting family income and child support.
Cultural differences (parental attitudes to education): Different ethnic groups may have varying cultural attitudes towards education. For example, some Asian families (e.g., Chinese, Indian) may place a very high value on education and family support, leading to higher achievement. Conversely, some studies suggest that some Black Caribbean boys may, at times, respond to negative labelling by forming anti-school subcultures, though this is a complex issue with many counterarguments.
Cultural capital (including residual cultural capital and its impact on school selection): The cultural capital that some ethnic minority pupils bring to school may not be recognised or valued by the mainstream education system, leading to a mismatch. 'Residual cultural capital' refers to cultural assets that particular groups possess but that schools might overlook or undervalue. This can also affect how effectively parents navigate the marketised system and select schools that would best suit their children.
Government policy on immigration: Policies surrounding immigration can impact educational achievement. For example, language barriers for new arrivals, the trauma associated with migration, or the socio-economic status of immigrant families can influence their children's schooling experiences.
Studies / data sources: Gillborn and Mirza; Strand; ONS data on relative deprivation; Flannerty; Modood; Ball; Walters; Law et al; Rampton Report; Basit; Lutpon; Bhatti; Vincent et al; Wright et al; Barnard and Turner
Gillborn and Mirza: Challenged the 'myth of the Asian miracle', arguing that while some Asian groups do well, systemic biases can still disadvantage them. They highlight that statistics can be misleading.
Strand: Examined the achievement of Gypsy Travellers, identifying them as one of the lowest-performing groups due to factors like poverty, exclusion, and a highly mobile lifestyle.
ONS data on relative deprivation: Often shows higher rates of poverty and deprivation among certain ethnic minority groups, linking material factors to lower educational outcomes.
Modood: Found that while some Asian groups (e.g., Indian and Chinese) achieve very highly, they often come from middle-class backgrounds, suggesting that class mediates ethnic differences.
Ball (and others): Highlighted that marketisation policies (e.g., parental choice) may not equally benefit all ethnic groups, as some parents lack the cultural capital to navigate the system effectively.
Basit: Explored the high value placed on education within Pakistani and Bangladeshi families, with parents making significant sacrifices for their children's schooling, often overcoming material disadvantage through cultural commitment.
Luptun: Studied four working-class schools (two predominantly White, two predominantly Pakistani), finding that while parental support was present in both, the White working-class parents often perceived education as less important.
Bhatti: Researched the impact of family, religion, and community on the educational experiences of Pakistani and Bangladeshi children, stressing the importance of family support and religious values.
Vincent et al: Explored how black middle-class parents challenge teacher stereotypes and actively engage with schools to ensure their children receive fair opportunities.
Wright et al: Examined the experiences of ethnic minority children in primary schools, finding that teachers often had racialised assumptions and expectations leading to different treatment.
Processes and relationships inside schools impacting on achievement of different ethnic groups
Key concepts: racialised expectations; teacher racism; institutional racism; ethnocentric curriculum; racism between pupils; labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy; formation of ethnic subcultures; ethnic identities; ethnocentrism in schools; speech hierarchies
Racialised expectations/teacher racism: Teachers may have preconceived ideas or stereotypes about the abilities and behaviour of pupils from different ethnic backgrounds, leading to differential treatment (e.g., Black boys being seen as disruptive, Asian girls as passive).
Institutional racism: Refers to discrimination that is built into the everyday workings of institutions like schools, rather than being overt acts of prejudice. This can manifest in curriculum content, assessment procedures, disciplinary policies, or lack of support for ethnic minority students.
Ethnocentric curriculum: The curriculum may reflect the culture, history, and values of the majority ethnic group (often White British), marginalising and devaluing the cultures and histories of ethnic minority pupils. This can lead to a sense of alienation and disengagement.
Racism between pupils: Ethnic minority pupils may experience verbal or physical abuse from their peers, leading to feelings of insecurity, reduced attendance, and negative impacts on their motivation and mental well-being.
Labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy: Negative labels (e.g., 'low ability', 'disruptive') given by teachers to ethnic minority pupils can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where pupils internalise the label and act out the behaviour expected of them, ultimately leading to underachievement.
Formation of ethnic subcultures: In response to negative labelling or a hostile school environment, some ethnic minority pupils may form subcultures (e.g., anti-school subcultures) that resist the school's values and norms, often leading to lower academic engagement.
Ethnic identities: How pupils perceive and assert their ethnic identity within the school context can be influenced by school processes. Some may embrace their identity as a form of resistance, while others might feel pressured to assimilate.
Ethnocentrism in schools: The tendency to view one's own culture as the norm and superior, leading to a failure to understand or value diversity within the school environment.
Speech hierarchies: Certain forms of language and communication styles are often privileged in schools. For example, Standard English is typically valued over other dialects or languages, which can disadvantage pupils whose home language is not English or who use other forms of speech.
Theorists: Mirza; Gillborn; Gillborn and Youdell; Troyna and Williams; Coard; Cline et al; Sewell; Archer and Francis; Archer; Mac an Ghail; Shain
Mirza: Studied Black girls, finding that they resisted teacher labels and racism but still often underachieved due to covert institutional racism, opting for strategies like 'pro-education but anti-school'.
Gillborn: Argued that the education system is institutionally racist, systematically disadvantaging Black pupils through processes like the 'new IQism' (assumptions about ability) and racialised expectation, leading to differential access to opportunities (e.g., sets, exam tiers).
Gillborn and Youdell: Introduced the concept of the 'A*-C economy' and 'educational triage', arguing that marketisation policies lead schools to focus resources on students perceived to be C/D borderline, often at the expense of Black pupils who are disproportionately viewed as having limited potential.
Troyna and Williams: Pointed out that schools often adopt a 'tokenistic' approach to multiculturalism, addressing surface-level differences rather than tackling systemic institutional racism.
Coard: Argued that the ethnocentric curriculum contributes to the underachievement of Black pupils by devaluing their culture and history, leading to a sense of inferiority.
Sewell: Argued that Black boys respond to school racism in different ways, identifying groups like 'rebels' (anti-school), 'conformists' (pro-school), 'retreatists', and 'innovators', suggesting that resistance can be complex and not always lead to failure.
Archer and Francis: Studied Chinese students, finding that they were often praised as 'model minorities' but also stereotyped as passive and conformist, which could limit their opportunities to take leadership roles.
Mac an Ghail: Examined the experiences of Afro-Caribbean and Asian boys in a comprehensive school, showing how they formed distinct subcultures as a response to racism and labelling.
Shain: Looked at the high achievement of South Asian girls, attributing it to strong family support, cultural emphasis on education, and a desire to overcome potential discrimination.
Exam Gold: Demie and McClean; Wright; Connolly
Demie and McClean: Challenged the view that Black pupils are consistently underperforming, highlighting improvements in some areas and groups, and the need for more nuanced data.
Wright: Found that in primary schools, Asian pupils were often treated differently by teachers (e.g., seen as not having a full grasp of English), resulting in less attention and lower expectations.
Connolly: Studied primary school children, finding that teachers constructed masculinity differently for different ethnic groups – for example, seeing South Asian boys as feminine and Black boys as disruptive.
Guidance: When discussing differences in achievement or formation of ethnic identities, be specific about particular ethnic groups rather than using broad terms like “ethnic minority pupils.” Use research evidence that studies a specific group to demonstrate deeper knowledge and avoid generalisations.
Tripartite system and related policies (Page 5)
Key concepts and policies:
Tripartite system: Introduced in 1944, it created three types of secondary schools (grammar for academic, secondary modern for practical, technical for vocational) with selection at age 11 via the '11+ exam'. It aimed to provide different education paths but often reinforced class divisions.
Selection by mortgage: Refers to the idea that despite the 11+ intending to be meritocratic, middle-class parents could effectively 'buy' their children into better schools by moving to areas with high-performing grammar schools or paying for private tuition for the 11+.
Selection policies: Various forms of student selection, including academic (11+), aptitude (for specific subjects), or faith-based criteria, which can impact social intake and promote segregation.
Internal selection (setting and streaming): Grouping students by perceived ability within schools (setting for specific subjects, streaming for all subjects), which can lead to labelling, self-fulfilling prophecies, and differential access to curriculum content.
Covert selection: Refers to subtle, often unofficial, methods schools use to deter certain types of students (e.g., from poorer families or specific ethnic backgrounds) from applying, or to encourage preferred students.
Education Reform Act 1988 (ERA): A landmark policy that introduced marketisation to education by creating policies such as the National Curriculum, SATs (tests at key stages), league tables (publishing school performance), creation of OFSTED (Office for Standards in Education), formula funding (funding per pupil), and open enrolment (allowing parents to apply to any school).
League tables: Published rankings of school performance (e.g., exam results) designed to inform parental choice and stimulate competition between schools.
Creation of OFSTED: The government body responsible for inspecting and regulating schools to ensure standards are met and to hold schools accountable.
Formula funding: A system where schools receive funding based on the number of pupils they attract, incentivising schools to compete for students.
Reforms to assessment: The introduction of standardised national tests (SATs) at various key stages, designed to measure pupil progress and school performance.
Open enrolment: Policy allowing parents to apply to any school, technically increasing choice, but often limited by school capacity and geographical access.
City centre academies: Early forms of academies established in urban areas with high levels of deprivation, aiming to raise standards by having more autonomy from local authority control.
Marketisation policies and privatisation
Marketisation policies: The overall strategy of introducing competition, choice, and consumer power into the education system, driven by New Right ideas (e.g., ERA 1988 components).
Endogenous privatisation: Where schools themselves are run as private businesses (e.g., academies converted into Multi-Academy Trusts) or by private companies.
Exogenous privatisation: Where private companies provide services to state schools (e.g., catering, cleaning, IT support, building maintenance, assessment services).
Multi-academy trusts (MATs): Groups of academies working together under a single governance structure, often managed by a private or charitable trust, seen as a form of endogenous privatisation.
Policies to improve equality of opportunity and outcome (social class, gender and ethnicity):
Specialist schools: Schools that received extra funding to specialise in areas like arts, technology, or languages, aiming to broaden educational opportunities and engagement.
Expansion of faith schools: Growth in the number of schools with a religious character, which can offer choice but also raise concerns about social segregation.
Expansion of universities: Increased access to higher education through the expansion of university places, aiming to improve social mobility.
Expansion of academies: Schools converted to academy status, operating independently from local authority control with direct funding from the government, theoretically allowing them to innovate and raise standards, particularly in deprived areas.
Creation of free schools: Schools set up by parents, teachers, charities, or businesses, free from local authority control, aiming to respond directly to local needs and parental demand.
Comprehensive schools: Introduced from the 1960s to replace the tripartite system, aiming to abolish selection and provide a common education for all children regardless of background, fostering social mixing and equality.
Education Action Zones (EAZs): Initiatives in deprived areas (1998-2005) providing extra funding to a cluster of schools, aiming to raise standards through innovative projects and community involvement.
Sure Start: Government programme (from 1998) providing integrated early years education, childcare, family support, and health services in disadvantaged areas, aiming to improve outcomes for young children.
Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA): Payments made to post-16 students from low-income families to help with educational costs and encourage them to stay in further education (abolished in England, still exists in other UK nations).
Aim High and Aiming Higher: Programmes designed to raise the aspirations and attainment of students from disadvantaged backgrounds and underrepresented ethnic groups, particularly in relation to university entry.
Pupil premium: Additional funding given to schools in England for pupils who are eligible for Free School Meals (FSM), to close attainment gaps between them and their more affluent peers.
Social mobility strategy: Government policies aimed at improving opportunities for individuals from all social backgrounds to achieve their full potential, often focusing on early years, schooling, and career progression.
GIST/WISE: Initiatives (Girls into Science and Technology / Women into Science and Engineering) aimed at encouraging girls to pursue STEM subjects, in an effort to combat gendered subject choices and career paths.
Multiculturalism: Policies promoting the recognition and valuing of different cultures within schools, aiming to make the curriculum more inclusive and address issues of ethnocentrism.
Progress 8: A government measure introduced in 2016 for secondary schools, assessing the progress pupils make from the end of primary school (Key Stage 2) to the end of secondary school (Key Stage 4), designed to encourage schools to focus on all pupils, not just those on the C/D borderline.
Impacts of globalisation on educational policy (Page 6)
Key impacts:
PISA/TIMMS rankings: International comparisons like the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) influence national educational policies, as governments often react to their country's relative performance by reforming curriculum or teaching methods.
Creation of free schools and academies: These models are partly inspired by international examples of school autonomy and private sector involvement in education, reflecting a global trend towards marketisation and decentralisation.
Expansion of educational providers: Globalisation has led to the growth of multinational education companies and the spread of international curricula (e.g., International Baccalaureate), increasing the diversity of educational providers and approaches within national systems.
Literacy and numeracy strategies: Many nations have implemented national strategies to improve literacy and numeracy, often in response to international concerns about workforce skills and global economic competitiveness.
Master teachers: The concept of 'master teachers' or highly skilled educators leading professional development, sometimes inspired by practices in high-performing education systems globally, aims to improve teaching quality.
Improved standards of education: Globalisation creates pressure for national education systems to compete on an international stage, leading to continuous efforts to raise standards across all levels.
Reforms to curriculum; compulsory maths and English: Curricula are often influenced by global economic demands for a skilled workforce, leading to reforms that emphasise core subjects like mathematics and English, sometimes driven by the need to compete with economies like those in East Asia.
Theorists / commentators: Ball; Alexander; Tomlinson
Ball: Stephen Ball has extensively written on the impact of globalisation and marketisation on educational policy, highlighting how global policy ideas are imported and adapted, often leading to increased inequality through 'policy borrowing'.
Alexander: Examined the 'globalisation of policy', noting how educational ideas and practices are increasingly shared and adopted across different countries, often through the influence of international organisations.
Tomlinson: Discussed the global education industry, including the rising influence of private companies in providing educational services and the challenges this poses for national control and equity.
Evaluation guidance:
When evaluating educational policies, consider not only the stated functions of education (e.g., raising standards, promoting equality) but also the actual effects on pupils of different social classes, genders, and ethnic backgrounds. For example, marketisation can nominally increase school choice but may be constrained by social/economic factors (e.g., ability to travel, cultural capital to navigate choices), leading to greater inequality. Use relevant research evidence to judge effectiveness and unintended consequences.
Exam Gold (summary tips)
Remember that social class, gender, and ethnic backgrounds intersect; select studies that address these intersections to evaluate how different factors uniquely influence pupil experiences in education (e.g., the experience of a working-class Black girl is different from that of a middle-class White boy).
Specificity matters: refer to particular ethnic groups rather than generic terms like 'ethnic minority pupils' or 'Asian pupils'; use studies that focus on a defined group (e.g., British Pakistani girls, Black Caribbean boys) to demonstrate deeper knowledge and avoid harmful generalisations.
Note on sources and revision guidance
The suggested studies come from widely used textbooks and revision materials and are not exhaustive; supplement with additional sources as appropriate to demonstrate depth of knowledge and critical understanding.
Tutor2u resources and videos are recommended for revision support, offering explanations and examples on these key sociological topics.
External resources
Tutor2u Sociology: https://tutor2u.net/sociology - A valuable online resource for detailed notes, articles, and revision materials specifically for sociology students.
Exam strategy reminders: When answering questions, always use sociological evidence, specify particular social groups where appropriate (rather than making broad generalisations), and consider the intersectionality of factors across social class, gender, and ethnicity to provide a comprehensive and nuanced analysis.