HEMH Final Review

Basically just my History notes as flashcards

Renaissance

Unit 1

Renaissance is French for

rebirth

What did Muslim scholars reintroduce to Europeans (that became a huge theme in Italian Renaissance)

Ancient Greek and Roman knowledge

Classical (ex: classical knowledge, classical works)

Ancient (Greek and Roman)

Medieval scholars vs Renaissance Scholars

Medieval scholars theorized afterlife; Ren. scholars philosophized and celebrated current life

What did the Renaissance value

Individual achievement; having a wide range of skills; faith in human capabilities

Humanism

An intellectual movement: Belief that human experience on Earth is important; Placed emphasis on what humans are capable of; Centered around study of classical knowledge; Valued the Humanities; secular & worldly

Secular/worldly

Non-religious

Humanities

Grammar & rhetoric, poetry, history (large focus of the Renaissance because the Ancient Greeks & Romans studied them)

Francesco Petrarch

Early Renaissance Humanist - "Father of Humanism"; from Florence

What did Petrarch do for the Renaissance/Humanism

He put together a library of Greco-Roman manuscripts & influenced other scholars who did the same; Helped popularize classical works & knowledge in Western Europe

What languages did Petrarch write in

Latin and vernacular

Vernacular

Everyday language of regular people

Why did Italy have a special reawakened interest in ancient Rome

Because Italy was the center of ancient Rome; there were lots of remains from ancient Rome to serve as reminders

Most important city/center of Italian Renaissance

Florence

Important banking family in Florence; established business on 1400's and prospered/expanded into multiple areas

The Medici family

The Medicis had lots of money, therefore...

they had lots of power in culture & politics

Cosimo de Medici

Took control of Florence government in 1434; the family continued to "rule" the city-state for many years

Most famous Medici

Lorenzo the Magnificent; Cosimo's grandson

How did Lorenzo the Magnificent embody many Renaissance ideals

He was a smart politician who held Florence together in hard times; He was a generous patron of the arts; He invited many poets & philosophers to the Medici palace

Art in Renaissance usually reflected... (humanist ideals)

individual achievement, Classical mythology scenes

Medieval Art vs. Renaissance Art

Medieval art was more religious and 2 dimensional while renaissance art focused less on religion and more on realism and detail (but also sometimes included religion)

Donatello

Renaissance sculptor; made a life-sized statue of a soldier on horseback

Art techniques used/discovered by Ren. artists

Perspective (making objects look 3-dimensional & making distant objects look smaller to give illusion of depth); shadings of light and dark; also studied human anatomy to make things more realistic

Ren. artists rejected popular medieval gothic-style architecture b/c saw it as disorderly & instead adopted

Columns, arches, & Domes used by ancient Greeks & Romans

Fillipo Brunelleschi designed Duomo (dome) to top the cathedral in Florence...

It was modeled after the ancient Roman pantheon & completed in 1496

Fillipo Brunelleschi also...

had many talents (like other Ren. artists); Studied sculpture w/ Donatello; Was an accomplished engineer & invented many of the machines used to construct his Duomo

Leonardo da Vinci (b. 1452)

One of most notable Ren. artists from Florence (was also interested/involved in botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, & engineering)

Da Vinci's famous paintings

Mona Lisa and The Last Supper (depicts Jesus & his disciples

Michelangelo (b. 1475)

Was a sculptor, painter, engineer, architect, & poet

Famous Michelangelo works

Pieta (statue of Mary cradling dead Jesus on her knees); David (Statue of biblical shepherd who killed Goliath - recalls harmony & grace of ancient Greek sculptures); Started project of painting murals of book of genesis & prophets who predicted Jesus on ceiling of Sistine Chapel in Rome (1508); Drew design for dome of St. Peter's cathedral in Rome (didn't live to see it but dome was complete based on exact design)

Raphael Sanzio

Artist who studied works of Da Vinci & Michelangelo (he was a few years younger than them); Blended Christian & classical elements

Raphael's famous works

School of Athens (imaginary gathering of classical & Ren. thinkers/scientists like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Arab philosopher Averroës, Michelangelo, Da Vinci, & Raphael himself); Madonna of the Meadow

Baldassare Castiglione

Wrote The Book of the Courtier - describes manners, skills, learning, & virtues a member of the court should have

Ideals for men vs women in The Book of the Courtier

Men should be athletic but not overactive, good at games but not a gambler, play musical instruments & know history & literature but is not arrogant; Women should offer balance to men: be peaceful & kind, lively but reserved & beautiful (Castiglione: "...for outer beauty is the true sign of inner goodness.")

Niccolo Machiavelli

Wrote The Prince (pub. 1513) - book instructing rulers on how to properly gain & maintain power from a realistic standpoint; stressed that the ends justify the means - urged rulers to use whatever means necessary to achieve goals; looked at real rulers instead of discussing leadership in broad terms; Machiavelli saw himself as an enemy of oppression & corruption

Machievellian

A term used to refer to the use of deceit in politics

Where did the Northern Renaissance begin

Flanders (Modern northern France, Belgium, and Netherlands) - thriving center of trade for northern Europe

Jan van Eyck

Flemish painter who focused on landscapes and everyday life/scenes of townsfolk; developed new techniques for using oil paint

Pieter Bruegel

A Flemish painter that lived in 1500s, captured scenes from peasant weddings, dances, harvests; portrayed large numbers of people; used vivid details and rich colors; nicknamed "Peasant Bruegel"

Albrecht Durer

German painter and printmaker; "master oil of paint"; studied art of Italy & used those techniques/methods in his own paintings, engravings, & prints; helped spread Ren. ideas to Northern Europe; often called "German Leonardo" b/c of wide ranging interests extending beyond art

Northern Renaissance Art

Lots of characteristics; less anatomy & perspective; More mastery of technique & detail of subject; everyday subjects; less focus on classics; use of oil paint

Focus of Northern Renaissance reform/revival

Emphasized religious themes; believed revival of ancient learning skills should be used to foster religious & moral reform

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch humanist priest; produced new Greek edition of New Testament & improved Latin translation of Bible; called for religious reform: wanted translation of Bible into vernacular for wider access, challenged worldliness of Church & wanted to return to early Christian traditions

In Praise of Folly

Book by Erasmus, uses humor to explore ignorant & immoral behavior of people; criticizes church; taught that an individual's chief duties were to be open-minded and show good will toward others

Sir Thomas More

English humanist; friend of Erasmus; called for social & economic reforms; write book Utopia - describes ideal society where men & women live in harmony, private property doesn't exist, nobody is lazy, all are educated, & justice is used to end crime instead of eliminate criminals

Johannes Gutenberg

Goldsmith turned printer from Mainz, Germany - Invented the printing press; printed complete edition of Gutenberg Bible in 1456, started European age of printing;

How did the printing press change Europe

Rulers & the church now dealing with more knowledgable audience; Print becomes a powerful tool for political & religious propaganda; Standardized texts enabled anyone who could read on instant authority; More people learned to read & write; Contributed to religious turmoil: Christians could read Bible for themselves, ideas of religious reformers spread faster & to larger audience than ever before

Printing before vs after

Before: there had only been a few thousand books in all of Europe, all slowly copied by hand; After: in next century between 150 & 200 million books went into circulation, new wave of mass production of books; books printed w/ movable type of rag paper easier & cheaper to produce than hand-copied works; presses churned out books on topics like medicine, law, astrology, mining, & geography

The Protestant Reformation

Unit 2

Simony

The selling and buying of church offices

Pluralism

Buying as many offices as one can afford if they are available

Absenteeism

Not showing up for the Job

Common corruptions/money wastes in the Catholic Church

Increasingly caught up in worldly affairs; popes competed with Italian princes for political power & led lavish lives; fought long wars to protect Papal states from secular foreign invaders; plotted against powerful monarchs who tried to take control of church in their lands; popes spent lots of money on decorating churches (hired painters & sculptors, rebuilt Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, etc.); increased fees for services like marriages & baptisms to finance their spending

Indulgences

A type of pardon the Church said lessened time a soul spent in purgatory - granted for only good deeds in Middle Ages but could be bought with money or gifts by late 1400s; many Christian protested indulgences

John Wycliffe

Early English reformer from before official Protestant Reformation; attacked corruption of church in England in 1300s - question some church doctrines; advocated for translation of Bible into English; was condemned for heresy after death

Jan Hus

Czech priest, philosopher, early Christian reformer; was a follower of Wycliffe; also believed Christians should be able to read the Bible in their own language; rejected indulgences and other church teachings; put on trial, condemned, & burned at the stake (his followers continued to operate in Eastern Europe)

Martin Luther

German monk and professor of theology at University of Wittenberg; wrote the 95 These which kicked off Protestant Ref.

Why did Luther choose to devote himself to religion (he was originally supposed to be a lawyer)

He got caught in a violent storm & prayed to St. Anne that he would become a monk if he was spared

Johann Tetzel incident (inspired 95 Theses)

Johann Tetzel got permission from pope to set up a pulpit to sell indulgences on the outskirts of Wittenberg in 1517; claimed any Christian who contributed money to rebuilding of Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome would get entry straight to heaven after death (could also buy more & free dead relatives from purgatory); this angered Luther b/c he thought it was foolish to believe in indulgences & only rich could afford them

95 Theses

A document posted on the door of a church in Wittenberg in 1517; criticized the use of indulgences for various reasons (they had no base in the Bible; Pope had no authority to release souls from purgatory; salvation could only be achieved through faith, etc.)

Did Pope Leo X & the Holy Roman Emperor pay attention to Luther immediately?

No, but his evolving theology (changing ideas about Christianity) came to anger them

How did Luther react when the church first asked him to recant his views?

He refused & started to develop increasingly radical ideas/doctrines; also started urging other Christians to reject the tyranny of Rome

Who excommunicated Luther in 1521

Pope Leo X

Holy Roman Emperor summoned Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521 - What happened there?

Luther went with the intention to defend his views, but the emperor just ordered him to recant - he refused; Luther was then declared an outlaw, which made it illegal for anyone to give him food or shelter (he still had powerful followers that continued to help him though)

Why wasn't Luther silenced by the Edict of Worms

A friend of his (Frederick III/the Wise - a German Prince) hid him in his Wartburg Castle where he translated the New Testament into German

Luther's main beliefs

Salvation can only be achieved through faith alone - anyone can be saved; Bible (not the church) is the sole religious authority - church does NOT have special power/connection to God; people should read the Bible (he translated it into German to help make this possible); Christians are part of a "Priesthood of all believers" who were all **spiritually\** equal (NOT in others ways); Clergy should marry; only Baptism & the Eucharist/Lord's Supper should be kept as sacrements b/c they are the only ones with basis in the Bible (opposed to the Cath. Church's 7 sacrements)

What did the printing press do for Luther

It helped spread his ideas across Germany & Scandinavia; Luther later declared "printing was God's highest act of grace."

What did Lutherans start to call themselves by the 1530s

Protestants - came to be used for all Christian groups who broke from Catholicism/the Cath. Church during this period

Why did German princes support Luther?

independence from the church and the HRE, excuse to seize church property in their territories, keep money in their territories; others supported Luther b/c of national loyalty - tired of German money going to Churches & clergy in Italy

Peasants' Revolt

Peasants revolted against lords & clergy - hoped to overthrow feudal system, achieve fair taxation, gain access to land & hunting rights; thought Luther would support them, instead he condemned social upheaval/revolution/violence - he favored social order & respect for political authority instead (he still sympathized with their reasons)

How did the Peasants' Revolt end

Aristocracy & Imperial Army slaughtered as many as 100,000 peasants; survivors were fined & did not achieve any of the goals behind the revolt; thousands were left homeless

Why did German princes unite under Luther

Political: princes gained autonomy from HRE; Economic: Cath. lands were taken by Protestants

The Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its prince - could ONLY choose between Catholicism & Lutheranism; most German states chose Lutheranism

Who approved the Peace of Augsburg & why

HRE Charles V - b/c Protestant ideas were too entrenched to be removed militarily so he had to give up and seek peace

John Calvin (1509-1564)

A reformer in Switzerland (he was born in France) who was trained as a priest & lawyer; published *Institutes of the Christian Religion* in 1536 - was widely read; set forth his Christian beliefs & provided advice on how to run & organize a Protestant church

Calvin's beliefs

Salvation by faith alone, Bible is the only true source, scripture should be in vernacular, education is important, only 2 sacrements (like Luther - diff. interpretations of Eucharist though); also believed in Predestination; world was divided into saints & sinners

Predestination

Calvin's religious theory that God has already planned out a person's life & therefore already decided who was getting saved & who was going to hell; the Elect (those who were saved) vs. the Reprobate (those who were damned)

Calvin & his followers

tried to live like saints & believed only those who were saved could lead truly Christian lives;

Calvin's Geneva

City-state in Geneva Switzerland lead by Calvin in a theocracy; inhabited by Calvinists who came to see themselves as "chosen people" trusted by God to build a truly Christian society - stressed hard work, discipline, thrift, honesty, & morality; Banned/faced fines for fighting, swearing, laughing in church, or dancing in public

Where did Calvinism spread

Across Europe - Germany, France, Netherlands, England, & Scotland

Some religious conflicts during Protestant Ref.

Germany - Caths. & Lutherans opposed Calvinists; France - wars raged between Calvinists & Caths.

Anabaptists

Protestant sect that argued only adult understood what it meant to accept the Christian faith & therefore only they should get baptized; mostly peaceful, called for religious tolerance; advocated for separation of church and state; Anabaptists ideas can be found in many Protestant sects today

Was Henry VIII a Protestant at first?

No - he was strongly against Protestantism & was even praised by the Church for this

Henry VIII - reasons for break with Cath. Church

Political reasons - wanted to annull current marriage & marry a wife who could give him a male heir but this wasn't allowed by Cath. Church; annullment was refused b/c Henry's wife Catherine of Aragorn was the aunt of HRE Charles V & the pope didn't want to offend him

Act of Supremacy (passed 1534)

1. The pope, Clement VII has no authority in England; 2. The king [of England] is the head of the Church of England (the pope ended up excommunicating Henry VIII)

Other effects of the Act of Supremacy

Henry's divorce from his wife was legal; all Cath. convents & monasteries England were ordered to be closed & their land/wealth was seized - known as dissolution; brought more wealth to monarchy

Who did Henry VIII appoint to archbishop

Thomas Cranmer

How many children did Henry VIII end up having

Three total: Elizabeth I, Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary), & Edward VI

What happened to loyal Catholics who opposed the Act of Supremacy

They were often executed for treason; this included Sir Thomas More who was later canonized (recognized as a saint) by the Cath. church

How did Anglicanism differ from Catholicism?

Allowed use of English Bible; not much else (religiously) - it kept most Cath. doctrines & forms of worship; not a radical religious movement

Edward VI came to throne after Henry VIII's death in 1547 - what happened religiously?

His advisors were devout Protestants; Thomas Cranmer made *Book of Common Prayer* - imposed moderate form of Protestant worship but kept many Cath. doctrines; this sparked uprisings what were harshly suppressed

Edward's half-sister Mary Tudor came to throne in 1553 - what changed religiously?

Mary was a pious Cath. who was determined to make England Catholic again; She failed at this but still burned hundreds of English Protestants at the stake for heresy (including Thomas Cranmer)

Throne was passed to her half-sister Elizabeth I in 1558 - what changed religiously?

Elizabethan Settlement - new policy of religious compromise, enforced reforms both moderate Caths. & Protestants could accept; English replaced Latin as the language of Anglican service, Book of Common Prayer was restored but revised to be more acceptable for Catholics, Much of Cath. ritual was kept, Church of England kept old hierarchy of bishops & archbishops, Monarch (not the pope) was head of the Church of England

How did the Elizabethan Settlement help England

Restored unity in England; firmly established them as a Protestant nation; It helped them escape many of the religious wars that tore apart the rest of Europe in the 1500s

Catholic Reformation vs Counter Reformation

Catholic Ref. - Internal changes to Catholicism; Counter Ref. - Attempts to stop the spread of Protestantism

Leader of Catholic Reformation

Pope Paul III - to end corruption within papacy he appointed (Cath.) reformers to top posts; they & their successors led the Reformation for the rest of the century

Council of Trent

A group of Cath. leaders called by Pope Paul III that met between 1545 & 1563 to respond to Protestant challenges & direct the future of the Catholic Church

What did the Council of Trent do/believe

They met on and off for about 20 years & reaffirmed traditional Catholic views Protestants challenged; believed salvation came through faith AND good works; declared the Christian Bible as a major source of religious truth but NOT the only source

What steps did the Council of Trent take to try to end abuses in Church

Provided stiff penalties for worldliness & corruption among clergy; established schools to create better-educated clergy who would challenge Protestant teachings