Psych midterm

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus

the stimulus that is the occasion for a conditioned response

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned response

an acquired response that is under the control of (conditional on the occurrence of) a stimulus

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

aquisition

process of developing a learned response

extinction

a conditioning process in which the reinforcer is removed and a conditioned response becomes independent of the conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

the phenomenon that occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

stimulus generaliation

After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning. In classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response; in operant conditioning, it occurs when a response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus occurs (or is suppressed) in the presence of other, similar stimuli.

adaptability

the ability to change to fit into a new situation or environment

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Behaviorism

an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

conditioning

a learning process in which an organism's behavior becomes dependent on the occurrence of a stimulus in its environment

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

stimulus

a signal to which an organism responds

response

a bodily process occurring due to the effect of some foregoing stimulus or agent

John Watson

the researcher of classical conditioning famous for conditioning an 11month old baby to fear white rats

little albert

Subject used by John Watson to test Classical Conditioning on humans; made fearful of white rabbit

B.F. Skinner

pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.

reinforcement

an act performed to strengthen approved behavior

primary reinforcement

something that is naturally reinforcing, such as food (if you are hungary), warmth (if you are cold), and water (if you are thirsty)

secondary reinforcement

Something that you have learned to value, like money.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs

positive punishment

following an undesired response by adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the behavior reoccuring

negative punishment

following an undesired response by removing a pleasant stimulus this is also called a time out and reduces the likelihood of the behavior reoccuring

continuous schedule of reinforcement

Reinforcers are given each time a target behavior is exhibited.

partial schedule of reinforcement

only after some of the occasions a correct response occurs is the relevant consequence applied

variable ratio schedule

A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a varying number of responses.

fixed ratio schedule

A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a specific number of responses.

variable interval

a schedule where reinforcement happens after a varied length of time

variable ratio

a schedule where reinforcement happens after a varied number of responses

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Martin Seligman

Conducted experiments with dogs that led to the concept of "learned helplessness"

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Albert Bandura

researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Edward Thorndike

behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

olfaction

the sense of smell.

kinesthesia [kin-ehs-THEE-zhuh]

our movement sense—our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body arts.

vestibular sense

our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height).

cornea

the eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

accommodation

in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.

audition

the sense or act of hearing.

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh]

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness.

conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal theory.)

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.